The Iron Age followed the Bronze Age. It began in Europe around 700 B.C. and ended with the rise of the Roman Empire. During this time, iron replaced bronze as the primary material for tools and weapons.
A crucial prerequisite for this transition was the existence of numerous iron deposits, which led to the creation of iron smelting and processing sites.
In Anatolia, weapons made of iron were already produced between 2500 and 1500 B.C.. From there, the use of iron spread to Europe, Asia, and Africa. In China, ironworking began around 800 B.C.
Advantages of Iron
The switch to iron occurred because it had several advantages over bronze:
- It produced sharper and more durable blades.
- It did not require mixing with another metal.
- Iron deposits were far more widespread than copper or tin.
Although early furnaces could not yet reach temperatures high enough to melt iron completely, the metal was extracted from iron ore through heating with charcoal. Over centuries, humans developed large mining areas and built up considerable iron reserves.
The iron produced was used to make tools, weapons, horse gear, jewelry, and household goods.
The Hallstatt and La Tène Cultures
Archaeologists divide the European Iron Age into two main periods:
- Hallstatt Culture (approx. 650–500 B.C.) named after finds from Hallstatt in Austria.
This early Iron Age was marked by iron production and salt mining.
- La Tène Culture (approx. 500–0 B.C.) named after discoveries near La Tène in Switzerland.
This represents the developed Iron Age, characterized by Celtic craftsmanship, art, and complex societies.
Iron Production and the Celts
The Celts were a group of related tribes in Europe who shared a common language and culture. They gained great influence in Europe through their ironworking skills.
The Celts were skilled artisans and brave warriors, but they lacked long-term political unity. Under pressure from the expanding Roman Empire and Germanic tribes, many Celtic groups migrated westward to regions such as Brittany, Wales, and Ireland, where Celtic languages and traditions have survived to this day.
Settlements of the Celts
The Celts lived mainly as farmers and herders, organized into tribes.
From the 2nd century B.C., they built large fortified towns called oppida. These were administrative and trading centers, often located on hills or in protected valleys. Inside, craftsmen produced tools and jewelry, and merchants exchanged goods.
Production and Trade
Iron production was central to Celtic settlements. Smelting took place in furnaces about one meter high, filled with iron ore and charcoal. Bellows supplied air to the fire, and the resulting mixture of slag and iron was refined with hammers and chisels.
To produce 1 kg of iron, about 10 kg of charcoal were needed, requiring 50 kg of wood.
Celtic craftsmanship included metalworking, pottery, glass production, weaving, and wagon building. Trade extended over long distances; the Celts exchanged copper, tin, iron, salt, amber, and furs with Mediterranean civilizations, from whom they obtained Greek and Roman luxury goods such as fine pottery and glassware.
Social Structure of the Celts
Celtic society was organized into tribes. Over time, aristocratic elites (nobility) emerged, who lived in fortified settlements and controlled trade and warfare. According to Julius Caesar, Celtic society consisted of:
- Nobility / warriors
- Druids (priests)
- Common people
The druids played a major role in education, religion, and law. They were the spiritual leaders of the Celts and were deeply respected by the people.