The Sumerians, whose origins remain uncertain (possibly linked to the Indus Valley peoples), were neither Semitic nor Indo-European. They founded in southern Mesopotamia the oldest known high culture in history.
The transition to urban life began around 3400 B.C., and by 2800 B.C. it had reached full development with the invention of writing and the rise of city culture. Sumerian cities were politically, economically, and religiously dominated by temple complexes and priests. Although Sumer remained divided into independent city-states, its culture influenced the Near East for millennia.
Irrigation and Urban Organization
In Central and Southern Mesopotamia, the artificial irrigation system was the foundation of civilization. From the Euphrates, large canals extended over more than 100 km, distributing water across fields.
The main canal branched into many secondary channels, ensuring equal distribution of water. This complex system required administration, cooperation, and engineering, fostering the rise of an organized urban society.
The earliest writing (pictographic cuneiform) emerged around 3300 B.C. as a means to record goods and agricultural products stored in temple warehouses.
The Temple Economy
The temple served as the economic and religious center of the city.
It managed agriculture, workshops, and trade. Priests collected and distributed all produce, employing thousands of workers, craftsmen, and farmers. Each person’s social rank determined their share of food and goods.
To control property, priests used cylinder seals, which could be rolled over clay to leave a unique mark, functioning like a signature or ownership stamp.
Rise of Kingship
Around 2500 B.C., kingship replaced priestly rule as the main form of government. Originally, military leaders were elected temporarily, but over time their power became hereditary and permanent.
Temples and palaces became two competing centers of power. The king combined the functions of commander, high priest, and lawgiver. King Urukagina of Lagash (ca. 2350 B.C.) is considered the first known social reformer in history, advocating fairness and justice.
Later, Ur-Nammu of Ur (around 2100 B.C.) established the first known code of laws, the Sumerian King’s Laws, even before Hammurabi.
Urban Society and Architecture
Cities like Uruk had up to 50,000 inhabitants and were surrounded by massive walls with hundreds of towers. Each city-state included dependent villages and agricultural oases.
The most prominent architectural feature was the temple tower, or ziggurat, a stepped pyramid built on an artificial terrace. These monumental temples symbolized the power of the city elite and served as religious centers dedicated to the city’s patron god. The ziggurat represented the cosmic mountain, connecting heaven and earth according to Sumerian-Babylonian belief.
Political Fragmentation
Despite cultural unity, Sumer remained politically fragmented into around 12 city-states of similar power, such as Ur, Uruk, Lagash, and Umma. They often fought wars using infantry phalanxes and four-wheeled chariots pulled by onagers (wild asses).
Around 2350 B.C., Lugalzagesi of Umma temporarily unified Sumer, but his rule lasted only a few years. Continuous rivalries and external pressure prevented long-term unification, until Sargon of Akkad eventually conquered the region.
Additional Notes
- Cylinder seals were characteristic artifacts of Sumerian-Babylonian art, used to mark ownership or authorize documents. The oldest city plan, from around 3300 B.C., shows the layout of Nippur, a major Sumerian city. The Sumerian term for king, lugal (“great man”), shows that monarchy was initially rare and emerged gradually from temple aristocracy.