Great Empires of the Semitic Peoples

The Empire of Akkad

Around 3000 B.C., Semitic nomads from the north and west migrated into southern and central Mesopotamia, drawn by the wealth of Sumerian culture. Around 2340 B.C., they founded the Akkadian Empire with its capital Akkad (location unknown, probably near modern Baghdad).

Under Sargon of Akkad, they conquered all of Sumer and extended their rule into northern Mesopotamia, creating the first great empire in history.
Sargon successfully integrated Sumerians and Semites, forming a unified Mesopotamian culture.

Sargon built Akkad into a residence city and military base for his new standing army, composed largely of Semitic soldiers.
His troops used spears, bows, and light weapons, outmatching the Sumerian militias.
He also controlled trade routes and established a maritime trade monopoly that connected Mesopotamia with Arabia and India.

Sargon and his successors sought to establish a territorial state, calling themselves “Kings of the Four Regions of the World.”
However, their centralized rule faced resistance from local traditions and city elites.
Despite efforts to unite temple property under royal control, the empire collapsed after about 150 years due to uprisings and invasions.

Even after its fall, Sumerian influence continued in architecture, agriculture, writing, religion, and administration.
The Akkadian language replaced Sumerian as the spoken tongue but kept many Sumerian words; Sumerian remained the language of scholarship.

Assyria

Assyria became the most militarized state of the ancient Near East. Its expansion was driven by limited natural resources, making conquest and tribute essential for survival.
The Assyrians saw themselves as executors of the world dominion of their god Ashur.

At the height of its power, Assyria conquered Egypt in 671 B.C.. Yet a few decades later (between 614–608 B.C.) the empire collapsed completely after internal revolts and external attacks.

Assyrian Rule and Society:

• The empire was organized into provinces ruled by governors.
• Rebellions were suppressed with brutal methods: mass deportations and destruction.
• Roads and postal systems connected the empire, and monumental palaces symbolized royal power.

Despite their harshness, Assyrian kings promoted architecture, irrigation, and scholarship.
Their capital Nineveh housed a famous library with over 22,000 clay tablets, the largest known cuneiform collection.

Cuneiform as the Foundation of Civilization

The origins of cuneiform writing go back to around 3200 B.C. in Sumer. Initially pictographic, it evolved into wedge-shaped symbols pressed into clay using a reed stylus. Clay tablets served as the main writing medium, preserving records of trade, taxes, and laws.

Cuneiform became the administrative backbone of large empires like Akkad, Babylon, and Assyria.
It enabled record-keeping, bureaucracy, and the transmission of culture across millennia.

King of Babylon and Lawgiver

Hammurabi of Babylon (1728–1686 B.C.) was one of the most important rulers in Mesopotamian history. He unified Mesopotamia under Babylon’s leadership, combining diplomatic skill with military power. His greatest achievement was the Codex Hammurapi, the world’s oldest known written collection of laws.

Babylon’s strategic position along the Euphrates gave Hammurabi control over vital water and trade routes. His massive construction project, the “Canal of Hammurabi is the Wealth of the People,” improved irrigation and strengthened Babylon’s dominance.

The Codex Hammurapi

The 2.25 m high basalt stele, inscribed with 280 legal paragraphs, was discovered in Susa in 1902 (now in the Louvre). The laws cover civil, criminal, and administrative matters, e.g., property, trade, family, injury, and slavery.
It is not a single law book but a collection of legal cases and rulings compiled for public display.

Main Areas of Law

• Property and theft
• Credit and trade
• Liability and negligence
• Family and marriage
• Slavery
• Rent and tenancy
• Physical injury and violent crime

Principles and Practice

Hammurabi saw himself as the “King of Justice” who protected the weak.
Publicly displayed cuneiform inscriptions limited the power of judges and made justice visible to all.
However, in practice, punishments differed by social status: nobles, commoners, and slaves were not treated equally.

The core idea was the principle of retribution (Talion):

“Eye for eye, tooth for tooth.”

Examples of Hammurabi’s Laws

The Code of Hammurabi is the oldest preserved legal text in human history and reflects a society ruled by hierarchy and responsibility, not equality.