Saul's Military Monarchy over Israel
In the 11th century B.C., the loose confederation of Israelite tribes faced an existential threat from the Philistines. Under this external pressure, Saul, the leader of the tribal militia, established a kingship around 1020 B.C.
The tribes of Israel had previously entrusted leadership in times of war to military commanders called judges for the duration of campaigns. Saul, from the tribe of Benjamin, succeeded in maintaining this leadership role permanently and was elected king over the northern tribes (Israel). He attempted to establish permanent state institutions alongside the loose tribal structures and to secure royal authority but failed.
Around 1000 B.C., Saul fell in the battle of Gilboa, along with much of his army, fighting against the Philistines.
The Philistines
The Philistines settled on the Palestinian coast around 1200 B.C., after being repelled by Egypt. They likely descended from Aegean invaders (the “Sea Peoples”). Possessing iron weapons, they were militarily superior to the Israelites, who were still using bronze. This superiority is illustrated in the biblical story of David and Goliath.
David (ca. 1000–960 B.C.): Founder of a Great Kingdom
In the south, Saul’s rival David founded a separate kingdom over the tribe of Judah. After the death of Saul’s son and successor Ishbaal, the northern tribes also recognized David’s kingship, thus uniting Israel and Judah. This allowed David to create a large, unified kingdom extending beyond Palestine.
David began his career as a mercenary leader in Philistine service. When establishing his own rule, he relied on a professional standing army. With it, he conquered the fortified city of Jerusalem, making it his capital.
He transferred to Jerusalem the sacred object of the Ark of the Covenant, previously venerated by the northern tribes as the dwelling place of God Yahweh. The Ark symbolized the invisible presence of God and was housed on Mount Zion. It served as a religious link between the king and the people, binding the tribes together under one faith and monarchy.
The establishment of an administration and writing system strengthened David’s power and the effectiveness of royal rule.
Solomon (ca. 960–926 B.C.): Prosperity and Crisis
Under David’s successor Solomon, the kingdom experienced cultural flourishing. Jerusalem became the royal residence, and the elite profited from wealth, power, and monumental architecture, at the cost of increasing burdens on the common rural population.
Solomon built a royal palace complex in Jerusalem and the great Temple for Yahweh, whose innermost sanctuary housed the Ark of the Covenant. Thus, Jerusalem became the holy city of Judaism.
Fortified cities with chariot garrisons ensured Solomon’s internal and external power. He also built trade centers and a port on the Red Sea, promoting commerce and royal revenues. However, high taxes and forced labor, especially imposed on the northern tribes, caused severe discontent. The land was divided into twelve administrative districts, each responsible for provisioning the royal court for one month a year.
Eventually, an uprising under the official Jeroboam failed, but after Solomon’s death, these tensions led to the division of the kingdom.