From the early Xia dynasty (21st century B.C.) to the Qing dynasty (1911 A.D.), Chinese history is divided into many dynastic periods.
Some major ones:
Xia (2100–1600 B.C.)
Shang (1600–1100 B.C.)
Zhou (1100–256 B.C.) → divided into Western Zhou and Eastern Zhou
Chunqiu (Spring and Autumn period)
Zhanguo (Warring States period)
Qin (221–207 B.C.) – first empire under one emperor
Han (206 B.C.–220 A.D.) – foundation of imperial China
Tang (618–907), Song (960–1279), Yuan (1271–1368), Ming (1368–1644), Qing (1644–1911)
The Beginnings of Chinese Civilization
China was already inhabited in the Paleolithic Age (10,000 B.C.).
Around 5000–4000 B.C., people grew rice — the Hemudu culture developed advanced lacquer techniques to make wooden vessels waterproof.
Simultaneously with Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley, early Chinese cultures such as Erlitou formed along the Yellow River (Huang He).
According to Confucius, the earliest Chinese dynasties were:
Xia (21st–16th century B.C.) – semi-legendary, founded by Yu the Great, who controlled floods and organized irrigation.
Shang (16th–11th century B.C.) – the first archaeologically proven dynasty, famous for bronze artifacts and oracle bones, the earliest form of Chinese writing.
These oracle bones were used to divine the will of gods through cracks formed when heated — the first known Chinese characters are inscribed on them.
The Shang Dynasty and Early Chinese Society
The Shang ruled with a developed hierarchy: the king, his family, advisors, and military governors.
Kings were also priests, communicating with ancestors and gods, especially the supreme deity Shangdi (“God in the Heights”).
Large-scale animal and human sacrifices were part of religious rituals.
The economy was based on royal estates cultivated by bonded peasants (zhong / zhongren).
Skilled craftsmen produced bronze weapons and tools.
The Shang already knew silk production and bronze casting.
The Zhou Dynasty
Formation of the Zhou Rule
Around 1045 B.C., the Zhou, former vassals of the Shang, defeated them in the Battle of Muye.
The Shang’s downfall was attributed to the cruelty of their last king, Zhou Xin.
The Zhou justified their rule with the “Mandate of Heaven” — the idea that the ruler governs by divine will but can lose this right through injustice.
The early period is known as the Western Zhou (until 770 B.C.).
The Zhou capital was near Xi’an (Hao).
Literature like the Book of Songs (Shijing) originated here.
Eastern Zhou and Decline
Internal conflicts led to the Eastern Zhou (from 770 B.C.) with a new capital at Luoyang.
Rival vassal states fought for supremacy during:
the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 B.C.)
the Warring States period (475–221 B.C.)
Out of these struggles, the state of Qin ultimately unified China.
Cultural Achievements of the Zhou Era
The Chinese writing system took its classical form.
Literature, philosophy, and the arts flourished.
The period of the “Hundred Schools of Thought” saw the rise of major philosophers:
Confucius (551–479 B.C.)
Laozi (Daoism, c. 400 B.C.)
Mencius (372–289 B.C.)
Zhuangzi and Liezi
Their ideas shaped Chinese ethics and governance for millennia.
Scientific progress included:
A decimal system in mathematics
Development of traditional Chinese medicine
Bronze advances and the “Book of the Yellow Emperor’s Internal Medicine” (Huang Di Nei Jing)
The Qin Dynasty and the First Emperor
Qin Shi Huangdi (r. 221–210 B.C.)
The Qin state conquered rival kingdoms and unified China in 221 B.C.
The ruler Qin Shi Huangdi (“First August Divine Emperor”) became the first emperor of China.
He centralized power:
Abolished the old feudal system
Divided the empire into 30 provinces and 1,000 districts
Appointed ministers (Chancellor, Censor, Grand Commander)
Legal reforms introduced the idea that all people are equal before the law, though punishments were harsh (forced labor, mutilation, death).
Standardized writing, weights, measures, and the calendar.
Massive building projects:
The Great Wall of China connected northern fortifications for defense.
Construction cost many lives — over a million peasants died.
Qin Shi Huangdi also built vast road networks and canals.
His famous terracotta army — about 6,000 life-sized soldiers, horses, and chariots — guarded his tomb.
After his death in 210 B.C., rebellion broke out, leading to the rise of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.–220 A.D.) under Liu Bang.
The Han Dynasty and Confucianism
The Han period established Confucianism as state ideology.
Confucian thought emphasized moral behavior, hierarchy, and harmony in society.
It profoundly shaped Chinese culture, education, and governance.
Two central philosophical questions guided Chinese thought:
- What is the human being’s place in the universe?
- How can humans live in harmony and order?
The Five Fundamental Human Relationships
Relationship
Father – Son
Ruler – Subject
Husband – Wife
Older Brother – Younger Brother
Friend – Friend
The Five Cardinal Virtues
- Humanity (Ren)
- Righteousness and Benevolence
- Decorum and Propriety
- Wisdom
- Trustworthiness
The Three Social Duties
Loyalty
Filial piety (respect for parents and ancestors)
Courtesy
Together with Daoism and Buddhism, Confucianism became one of the three pillars of Chinese thought.
As later summarized:
“Confucianism governs the mind, Daoism governs the body, and Buddhism governs the soul.”