General Overview
The Indus (Harappa) Civilization existed between 3500 and 1500 B.C. in today’s Pakistan and northwestern India.
Possible earlier culture: Dwaraka Culture (7000 – 4000 B.C.), discovered in the Gulf of Cambay — possibly the oldest human civilization.
Cities and Achievements
The main cities were Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.
Around 2000 B.C., large, well-planned cities existed:
Straight, grid-patterned streets
Multi-storey brick houses
Sophisticated drainage and sewer systems
Public baths and wells (up to 20 m deep)
Mohenjo-Daro was built on an artificial platform to protect against floods.
Economy and Crafts
Highly organized urban economy and social structure.
Handicrafts included:
Tools and weapons (bronze, copper, flint)
Pottery and ceramics
Textiles and wooden carts
Jewelry from carnelian, lapis lazuli, crystal, gold, silver, bronze
Trade reached Mesopotamia, as evidenced by Indus jewelry found in Mesopotamian tombs (e.g., Queen Puabi, ~2500 B.C.).
Farmers cultivated wheat, rice, and cotton in surrounding villages.
Society and Religion
Society was highly organized, possibly ruled by priests.
Artistic finds: statues of a “Priest-King” and terracotta figures.
The people worshipped fertility symbols and the sacred bull.
The script of the Indus people is still undeciphered.
Around 1500 B.C., the civilization declined — possibly due to natural disasters, climate change, or invasions.
Note: Almost 2,000 years before Greek city-states, a citizen-governed urban community seems to have existed in the Indus Valley.
India in the Vedic Period
Arrival of the Aryans (~1500 B.C.)
Around 1500 B.C., 500 years after the fall of the Harappa culture, Indo-Aryan tribes migrated from the northwest into India.
They settled between the Hindu Kush and the Punjab (land of five rivers), later moving east to the Ganges.
The Vedas
Their sacred texts are the Vedas (“knowledge”, Sanskrit vid = to know).
They form the basis of Indian religion and culture, giving rise to Hinduism.
Two Theories
- Migration theory: Semi-nomadic Aryans came from Central Asia and conquered native peoples with bronze weapons.
- Indigenous development theory: Some Indian scholars believe the Vedas originated before Aryan migration (ca. 3500 B.C.), suggesting continuity with earlier Indus culture.
Society and Caste (Varna System)
The Aryans brought a four-tiered class structure, described in the Vedas and still reflected in India’s caste system today:
Class (Varna) Role
Brahmins Priests, scholars, guardians of religion
Kshatriyas Warriors and rulers
Vaishyas Farmers, herders, traders
Shudras Servants and laborers
(outside the system) Dasas Slaves; outcasts (executioners, tanners, potters, etc.)
State and Economy
Early society consisted of village communities with agriculture and cattle breeding.
Cattle were used as currency.
Professions:
Herders: often nomadic, raising cattle
Farmers: cultivated rice, barley, millet, wheat, beans, sesame, pumpkins
Craftsmen: made ceramics, wagons, copper vessels, tools, and jewelry
Vedic Religion and Beliefs
Main Vedic Gods Role
Indra God of the sky, fertility, storms
Surya Sun god
Ushas Dawn
Agni Fire god
Mitra God of contracts and friendship
Varuna Guardian of cosmic order
Priests (Brahmins) performed rituals and sacrifices to maintain cosmic order.
Religion gradually shifted toward Brahmanism — the idea that everything (Atman = soul) is part of one divine essence (Brahman).
Concepts developed:
Karma – actions determine one’s rebirth
Samsara – cycle of rebirth
Dharma – duty according to one’s caste
The goal: liberation from the cycle (moksha) through right action and insight.
Buddhism and Jainism
Buddhism
Founded by Gautama Siddhartha (the Buddha), ca. 560–480 B.C.
Taught that:
- Life is full of suffering (Dukkha).
- Suffering is caused by craving and desire (Tanha).
- Ending desire ends suffering.
- The Eightfold Path leads to liberation:
Right understanding, thought, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, concentration.
Buddhism rejects the caste system and focuses on inner perfection and compassion.
Jainism
Founded by Mahavira Vardhamana (599–527 B.C.)
Stresses absolute non-violence (Ahimsa) and strict vegetarianism.
Every living being has a soul; gods are beings of higher consciousness.
The Maurya Empire
Founding
After Alexander the Great’s retreat (325 B.C.), Chandragupta Maurya established the first great Indian empire.
His advisor Kautilya (Chanakya) helped overthrow the Nanda dynasty in Magadha (Bihar).
The empire expanded under Bindusara, reaching most of the Indian subcontinent.
Ashoka the Great
After conquering Kalinga in a brutal war, Ashoka renounced violence and adopted Buddhism.
He made Buddhism the state religion, sending missionaries across Asia.
His reign marked one of India’s greatest unifications.
Edicts of Ashoka (“the Humane”)
Ban on killing animals
Care for people and animals
Moral education by traveling officials
Justice and fairness in courts
Religious tolerance
Promotion of ethical life (Dhamma)
These edicts were carved on Ashoka pillars, such as the one at Sarnath, whose lion capital became India’s national emblem.
Later Empires and Cultural Exchange
Around 200 B.C., the Maurya Empire fell apart.
The Scythians and later the Kushan Empire (100 B.C.–200 A.D.) dominated northern India.
The Kushans encouraged Greco-Buddhist art — Greek-influenced sculptures of the Buddha.
From the 13th century, Islamic sultanates arose, followed by the Mughal Empire (1526–1857), famous for monuments like the Taj Mahal.
Key Monuments
Ashoka Pillar – symbol of Buddhist ethics and imperial unity.
Taj Mahal (1627–1658) – built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife, the masterpiece of Mughal architecture.