Complex Subordination

Overview of Complex Subordination in Persian

Complex subordination in Persian appears when one clause depends on another. At C1 level, you will not only recognize these structures but also control different types of subordinate clauses in both spoken and written Persian. In this chapter we focus on what is specific to complex subordination: how clauses are linked, how verb forms interact, and what each type of linker suggests in terms of meaning, nuance, or style.

Throughout, keep in mind that Persian normally places the verb at the end of each clause, and that the choice of conjunction or linker often signals the function and subtle tone of the subordinate clause.

Nominal Clauses as Subordinates

Nominal clauses function inside a larger sentence as subject, object, or complement. At advanced level, you need to see how different complementizers are used and what shades of meaning they bring.

The most common neutral complementizer is «که» /ke/. It introduces a clause that can serve as the object of verbs like «گفتن» (to say), «فکر کردن» (to think), «باور داشتن» (to believe), «می‌دانستن» (to know), «فراموش کردن» (to forget), or as a complement after expressions like «مهم است» (it is important), «واضح است» (it is clear).

For nuanced, formal, or scholarly styles, speakers may omit «که» after some verbs or after set expressions, but in most everyday complex sentences, «که» is kept because it clarifies the clause boundary and keeps the rhythm of the sentence natural.

In complex subordination, nominal clauses frequently chain together. For example, one «که» clause can itself contain another «که» clause, especially in narrative or argumentative texts. The challenge at this level is to track which «که» belongs to which verb, and to avoid ambiguity by carefully ordering your elements, especially when including objects, adverbs, or prepositional phrases before the subordinate verb.

Also note that at C1 level, nominal clauses often combine with the subjunctive, which creates more precise meanings of intention, doubt, or evaluation. The way subjunctive interacts with these clauses belongs mainly in the separate chapter on the subjunctive mood, so here we only point out that nominal subordination provides one of the main environments where subjunctive verbs appear.

Adverbial Clauses and Their Linkers

Adverbial clauses modify the main clause by adding time, cause, concession, condition, or purpose. In complex subordination, they are central because they let you build multi-layered, nuanced sentences. Persian has a rich set of conjunctions and complex linkers that introduce these clauses.

An adverbial clause can stand before or after the main clause. When placed first, it is often followed by a slight pause in speech and a comma in writing. In formal Persian, long sentences with several adverbial clauses are common, so you must be precise in how you group your clauses and repeat the subject when necessary.

Temporal (Time) Subordination

Temporal clauses answer when, since when, until when, or before/after what event. Persian uses a range of linkers:

«وقتی که» or «وقتی» introduce a clause equivalent to “when” in English. The «که» is often optional in speech but more frequent in careful writing. The subordinate clause can express a single event in the past, a repeated action, or a general condition. In more literary or elevated style, you can sometimes front the temporal adverb phrase for emphasis and still keep the full «وقتی که» structure.

«هنگامی که» is a more formal synonym of «وقتی که». It often suggests a written, formal, or literary register. You find it frequently in academic texts, official documents, or high-register prose. Its presence already signals that the surrounding text is not colloquial.

«تا وقتی که» and «تا وقتی» introduce a clause that sets a time limit or a condition that holds until a certain point. In a complex sentence, this often interacts with aspect and verbal aspectual adverbs, and at C1 level you should notice how speakers choose perfect vs simple forms to mark boundaries in time.

«بعد از این که» and «قبل از این که» introduce “after” and “before” clauses when they have a full verb. The presence of «این» makes the linker heavier and more formal; in speech, shorter forms like «بعد از این‌که» and the even more compact «بعد از اینکه» appear in writing. In high-level prose, these linkers often co-occur with nominalizations and relative structures, which increases complexity.

«تا زمانی که» is similar to «تا وقتی که» but slightly more formal and abstract. It is often used when the time condition has a conceptual or legal flavor, for example in regulations or analyses.

These temporal linkers often combine with one another or with other subordinates. For example, a temporal clause can itself contain a causal or conditional clause, which increases the level of embedding.

Causal and Result Clauses

Causal clauses express reason or cause, while result clauses express consequence. Persian distinguishes them clearly with different linkers, and at advanced level, your choice creates specific pragmatic effects.

«چون» and «زیرا» both introduce causes. «چون» is more common in speech and neutral writing. «زیرا» is more formal and typically used in argumentative or academic texts. They usually precede the clause that describes the cause.

«چون که» is a slightly heavier variant of «چون» and can mark extra emphasis or clarity. Many speakers use «چون که» in narrative style when they want to slow the rhythm and highlight the reason.

«برای این که» and «به خاطر این که» also introduce reasons, but they carry a nuance of “for the purpose that” or “because of the fact that.” In many contexts they are close to “since” or “because,” yet a careful writer can exploit the slight difference in focus: «به خاطر این که» often associates with motives, blame, or justification.

On the result side, Persian frequently uses «بنابراین» and «در نتیجه» as sentence adverbs to introduce a result clause. A more explicitly subordinating pattern is «به طوری که» or «آن‌چنان که» to introduce a clause of manner or extent that implies result. These can be stacked in more complex argumentative paragraphs where multiple causes and results are linked.

Whenever you build a chain of cause and effect, be consistent in your choice of linkers. Mixing colloquial «چون» with highly formal «بنابراین» might sound stylistically mixed unless you intend that voice.

Concessive and Contrastive Clauses

Concessive clauses express opposition to expectation, roughly corresponding to “although,” “even though,” or “despite the fact that.” Complex subordination here allows you to present nuanced contrast without breaking the sentence.

The core conjunction is «اگرچه». It introduces a clause that acknowledges something, while the main clause presents an unexpected or contrasting fact. In more formal or written style, you often find «اگرچه» placed at the very beginning, followed by a long subordinate clause, then the main clause.

«گرچه» is a shorter variant and quite common in both speech and writing. It often sounds a bit more compact and can appear mid-sentence as well.

«با این که» and «با این‌که» are widely used in speech and writing. They correspond to “although / even though” and are stylistically neutral. They fit comfortably in long, complex sentences and combine easily with other subordinate clauses.

«هرچند» is often more literary or rhetorical. It can also introduce a concessive clause without a full verb, in which case it is closer to “however much” or “even if.” When it introduces a full clause, it carries strong concessive force and supports elaborate contrasts in essays and speeches.

Contrast can also be created without full subordination by using sentence adverbs such as «اما», «ولی», «با این حال», but those belong more to coordination and discourse linking rather than pure subordination. At C1 level you will often see combination of both, for instance a concessive subordinate clause followed by a contrastive adverb in the main clause.

Conditional and Hypothetical Subordination

Conditionals form a core part of complex subordination. Persian uses a set of markers that introduce condition (“if,” “in case,” “unless”) and that interact in systematic ways with tense and mood. The precise patterns of conditional verb forms are treated in more detail elsewhere, so here we focus on the structure of subordination and the variety of linkers.

«اگر» is the basic conditional conjunction. It introduces a clause that sets a condition for the main clause. At advanced level, «اگر» clauses can be nested inside other subordinates, for example inside temporal or concessive clauses, which creates layered conditions.

«اگه» is the colloquial form of «اگر» and belongs more to spoken and informal registers. You should recognize it and use it when representing speech or writing informally, but in formal writing, «اگر» is the norm.

«چنانچه» and «در صورتی که» both express “provided that” or “if” with a more formal and often legal or technical flavor. They commonly occur in contracts, regulations, academic argumentation, and formal instructions. Their presence typically signals a written or official voice.

«مگر این که» introduces an exception, “unless.” In complex subordination, it often appears in negative contexts where the main clause states something that holds generally, and the «مگر این که» clause carves out an exception. Skilled writers exploit this structure to refine arguments or hypotheses.

Persian can also build conditional meaning without explicit «اگر», relying on word order and intonation, especially in spoken language. At C1 level, you should be able to recognize implicit conditions. However, for clear complex sentences in writing, keep explicit conjunctions so that your hierarchy of clauses remains transparent.

Multiple conditional clauses can be coordinated, sometimes each with its own «اگر» or using one «اگر» shared by several verbs. In such multi-part conditions, keep your subject references clear, because pronouns can otherwise become ambiguous across clauses.

Purpose and Final Clauses

Purpose clauses explain why someone does something, in the sense of intended goal. Complex subordination here is very common in academic, technical, and formal writing where motivations and aims must be explicit.

«برای این که» introduces a purpose clause that often uses the subjunctive. Grammatically, the structure is parallel to a causal clause, but the semantics are different: here the action of the subordinate clause is intended but not yet realized. In narrative, this allows you to show characters’ goals within a single long sentence.

«تا» is another marker of purpose. Depending on context, «تا» may mark “until” (temporal) or “so that” (final / purpose). In complex sentences, the interpretation usually depends on the verb meanings and the presence of subjunctive. With verbs of effort or attempt, a «تا» clause with subjunctive often means “in order to.”

«به منظور این که» is a more formal expression of purpose, frequent in reports, academic texts, and project descriptions. It usually co-occurs with abstract subjects and nominalizations, and it signals a high degree of planned, conscious intention.

In experienced writing, purpose clauses often cluster with result and conditional clauses, for example when describing a method (“in order to X, we did Y, so that Z would occur if…”). The layering can be deep, so practicing the clear placement of verbs and conjunctions is crucial.

Relative and Complement Clauses with «که»

Relative clauses are covered elsewhere in detail, but in complex subordination they interact strongly with other subordinate clauses introduced by «که». At C1 level, you must manage several «که» in a single sentence while keeping reference clear.

A relative «که» attaches to a noun and describes it, while a complement «که» attaches to a verb or an adjective and completes it. In long sentences, both types may appear one after another. The reader relies on proximity to decide which «که» belongs to which phrase. Careful writers place the relative clause immediately after the noun it modifies, and then add complement clauses later.

In practice, you often see patterns where a nominal clause with «که» functions as the object of a verb, and inside that clause, a noun is again modified by a relative «که» clause. This nested subordination is typical of advanced narrative or analytical prose, and it demands that you plan your sentence before writing it, especially in formal contexts.

Sometimes speakers omit a repeated subject or object pronoun in the second subordinate clause when it is recoverable from context. This creates more compact but also more complex structures. At C1, you should be comfortable both producing such ellipsis and restoring the omitted phrase mentally to ensure you understand the precise logical relations.

Layering Multiple Subordinate Clauses

Complex subordination really becomes “complex” when more than one subordinate clause is present. Persian allows deep embedding: a clause can contain another as its object, which in turn contains a relative clause, and that may even contain a conditional or temporal clause.

From a structural point of view, keep a few principles in mind.

First, subordinate clauses in Persian tend to appear before the verbs they belong to. This means several verbs will appear at the end of clauses in sequence. When you read or listen, you often have to wait until the final verb to know the exact role of a clause. As a writer or speaker, you should signal clause boundaries clearly with conjunctions, discourse markers, and sometimes short pauses.

Second, each type of linker usually has its own “slot.” For example, a temporal clause with «وقتی که» may be followed by the main clause, which itself contains a causal clause with «زیرا». You rarely stack two different conjunctions at the same beginning of one clause. Instead, you build levels: one clause subordinated by a time conjunction, another by a cause conjunction, and so on.

Third, advanced speakers exploit echoes between clauses. For example, they repeat particular words or use parallel structures to keep the reader oriented in long sentences. While this belongs partly to style, it is inseparable from how complex subordination is perceived. A sentence can be grammatically correct but still hard to parse if it lacks such internal cohesion.

Finally, when your sentence threatens to become too long or confusing, Persian allows you to break the chain and start a new sentence, sometimes with a resumptive pronoun or a discourse connector. At C1 you are expected to feel when a sentence is approaching its processing limit and to adjust either by simplifying the subordination or by dividing the content into two or more sentences.

Stylistic and Register Considerations

Different subordinate linkers and patterns signal different registers. For instance, «زیرا», «چنانچه», «به منظور این که», and «در صورتی که» are associated with formal and academic style. By contrast, «چون», «اگه», and repeated «که» chains are typical in spoken or colloquial narrative.

In literary prose, you often find elaborate chains of subordination, with several «که» clauses, mixed with temporal, causal, and concessive structures. Authors may intentionally suspend the main verb until very late to create tension or rhythm. Reader familiarity with these patterns is assumed at advanced levels.

Argumentative writing in Persian, such as editorials or essays, relies heavily on well-structured causal and concessive subordination. Mastery of combinations like “although X, Y, because Z, so that W” in a single coherent period marks a high command of style and logical structure.

Moreover, Persian allows subtle shifts in politeness and indirectness via complex subordination. For example, expressing criticism or disagreement through a subordinated concessive clause can sound softer and more diplomatic than a direct main-clause assertion. This pragmatic use of subordination is part of advanced communicative competence.

Summary of Key Structural Rules

Complex subordination in Persian is governed by a combination of conjunction choice, clause order, and verb placement. Temporal, causal, concessive, conditional, purposive, and relative linkers each open specific kinds of subordinate clauses. These clauses can be nested and combined to describe time relations, reasons, expectations, possibilities, goals, and detailed descriptions within a single sentence.

The main difficulty at C1 is no longer understanding individual linkers, but handling several at once while keeping reference clear and style appropriate to the context. Awareness of register-sensitive forms and sensitivity to sentence length and processing load are central to mature control of complex subordination.

Vocabulary List for This Chapter