Table of Contents
The region of present-day China was inhabited as far back as the Paleolithic era (around 10,000 BCE). At roughly the same time that the Harappa (Indus) culture flourished, as well as ancient sites such as Jericho and early Mesopotamian settlements, a high culture emerged in what is now the Henan province. This culture was characterized by the regulation of major rivers, irrigation of fields, and the construction of large cities with temples.
Myth of the Creation of the World
A widely told Chinese myth describes the world's origin as an egg: first, there was chaos, a damp darkness inside this vast egg, from which the giant Pan Gu was born. He remained asleep for 18,000 years, then assumed human form and broke the shell with hammer and chisel. The lighter pieces (Yang) floated upwards, while the heavier ones (Yin) sank to become the earth. In this way, heaven rested on his head, and he stood on the earth. For 18,000 years, Pan Gu grew, and so did heaven and earth. When he died, his flesh became the soil, his blood the rivers and lakes, his eyes the sun and moon, his breath the wind, his voice thunder. His teeth and bones turned into metals and stones; his marrow and seed into precious pearls and jade. The parasites that fed on his body were transformed into the first humans. In another version of the myth, Pan Gu molded the first men and women from clay, assigning one part the feminine attribute of Yin and the other the masculine attribute of Yang.
In reality, China was inhabited very early. The oldest human bones of the "Yuanmou man", found in 1976, were around 1.7 million years old. In 1920, near Beijing (in Zhoukoudian), remains of the so-called "Peking man", who lived approximately 250,000 to 500,000 years ago, were discovered.
Paleolithic and Neolithic Periods
From the Paleolithic era (10,000 BCE), there are stone tools. Unlike Europe, where hand-axes (faustkeile) dominate, China and other parts of Asia feature tools made from river stones (choppers) used for chopping and scraping. In the 8th/7th millennium BCE we observe the transition from hunting-gathering to settled farming and herding. By the 5th/4th millennium BCE people in China were cultivating rice. In the late Neolithic large settlement areas existed. The largest early cultures include:
- the Yangshao culture in north China (the "cradle of Chinese culture” in the area around Hebei, Henan, Shaanxi, extending to Gansu and Qinghai; agriculture: rice cultivation; animal husbandry: pigs, less often cattle, goats and sheep; domestication of the dog; craft: polished-stone tools, coloured pottery)
- the Dapenkeng culture in southeast China (especially the coastal zones; notable for distinctive pottery production)
- the Qinglian'gang culture in today's Jiangsu province (an agrarian culture of crop- and livestock-farming)
Also, the so-called Hemudu culture in Jiangsu and northern Zhejiang knew techniques to coat wooden vessels with lacquer to resist moisture, and could heat them to 100 °C.
Dynasties of Early China
In the 2nd millennium BCE the beginnings of metalworking appeared in China. Priests and shamans gained dominance. The Longshan culture (found in Longshan, Jinan province) — known for its black pottery — spread widely and gave rise to trade among settlements. From this culture emerged the first Chinese kingship, traditionally divided into three dynasties (San-dai) as per Confucius: the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty and the Zhou dynasty.
Xia Dynasty
The Xia dynasty (21st to 16th century BCE) falls into the 21st century BCE according to tradition, though its existence cannot be definitively proven. Archaeologically, the Erlitou culture (ca. 19th–16th century BCE) located along the Yellow River, Wei He, and Fen He is documented. The legendary capital was Yangcheng. During this era, significant advances occurred, including the regulation of major rivers, the irrigation of fields, the construction of large cities with temples, and the production of bronze vessels, drinking vessels, and weapons. The founder, according to Confucian tradition, was Yu the Great (c. 2207–2198 BCE). The oldest Chinese characters appear in this period, albeit only as oracle-bone inscriptions, most of which date to the subsequent Shang dynasty.
Shang Dynasty
The Shang overthrew the Xia. Their original territory lay not far from Yangcheng. Early bronze artifacts, horses, and chariots, as well as silk, are already evident in this era. The Shang dynasty had a developed governance structure. The dynasty's name derives from a word for "shaman", hinting at a state formed around a priest-kingship. The priest-king held political, military, and religious power. The Shang period is divided into two phases according to finds in Henan province: the Zhengzhou phase (16th-14th century BCE) and the Anyang phase (13th-11th century BCE). In the Zhengzhou phase, succession to the throne passed to the king's brothers; in the Anyang phase, it shifted to father-to-son. The king combined secular and spiritual authority, and appointed advisers, governors, and generals, usually from his own family.
Religion during the Shang
In the Shang era, deceased rulers were regarded as divinized and joined the ranks of nature-gods and spirits in an early Chinese religion (ancestor cult). The supreme deity was called "di" or "shangdi" ("god on high”). The priest-king served as spiritual head. Through ritual oracle divination (often using tortoise-shell or bone), he asked ancestors and gods questions such as:
- Who or what should be ritually sacrificed? (in early China human, animal and plant sacrifices existed, some rituals gave 100 sheep, 100 pigs, 100 dogs or up to 1000 oxen)
- What will weather be like (rain, wind, floods)?
- Which form of warfare should be used against whom?
- What tasks should agriculture undertake? (for instance: "wheat in Fu north-west of Anyang" appears on an oracle bone)
- How much tribute/tax is required?
- What royal affairs (hunt, travel, illness, offspring) need to be conducted?
- What does the future bring?
The oracle was consulted using pyromantic divination, interpreting the signs from the fire or cracks in the shell.
Economy and Feudalism
Under the Zhou dynasty (11th century BCE to 221 BCE) a feudal system (fengjian) developed: "feng" meaning to grant a fief to a lord, "jian" meaning a state built by subordinate feudal lords. The state's economy was based on the king's lands (domains) worked by serfs or bondsmen known as zhong or zhongren ("the many people" or "the common folk"). These workers were bound to land, owed corvée and military service to the landholder (king or prince). Crops grown included various types of millet, soybeans, occasional wheat, barley, and rice. Unlike European serfdom, labour here was done collectively with primitive tools made of wood (fork, spade), stone (sickle, scythe), or bone. The zhongren did not own their tools; these were centrally stored and overseen by appointed officials. Besides farming, the zhongren also worked in mining, transportation, and the smelting of copper and tin into bronze; the actual casting was done by artisans called duogong ("the many craftsmen"), later known as baigong ("the hundred craftsmen").
Periods of the Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou dynasty is divided into the Western Zhou (until 771 BCE) and Eastern Zhou (until 221 BCE). The dynasty was named after its founder, King Wu of Zhou, who overthrew the Shang. Xi'an (also Chang'an) became the capital; later the rulers resided in Luoyang for 934 years. Because Xi'an lies west of Luoyang, the early era is referred to as the Western Zhou, and the later era is called the Eastern Zhou. During Zhou rule, a money economy gradually emerged in China; currency evolved from barter-style trade goods.
Even China had pyramid-like tombs: King Wu of Zhou was buried in one that was approximately fifteen meters high at Xi'an. One claim is that the world's largest pyramid (approx. 300 meters high) lies in China. A US pilot, James Gaussman, during WW II reportedly flew over a level valley near Xi'an and saw a gigantic white pyramid with a gem-like capstone, later describing it in vivid detail.