Table of Contents
Why Information Skills Matter in Biology
Biology is based on observations and evidence. Modern biologists spend much of their time not only doing experiments, but also searching for what is already known, checking whether information is reliable, organizing data, and communicating their results. These skills are just as essential for beginners as for professionals.
This chapter focuses on how biologists handle information, not on specific biological facts.
Searching for Biological Information
Types of Information Sources
Biological information comes in many forms. Common types include:
- Primary literature
- Original research articles describing new experiments or observations.
- Usually found in scientific journals.
- Secondary literature
- Reviews, textbooks, and summaries that explain and synthesize many primary studies.
- Often easier to understand for beginners.
- Tertiary sources
- Encyclopedias, handbooks, popular science books, reliable websites.
- Useful for quick overviews, but usually less detailed and less up‑to‑date.
- Data repositories
- Databases with sequences, structures, images, or field observations.
- Examples: DNA sequence databases, species occurrence databases (names and specifics belong elsewhere, but the idea is important here).
For school or introductory work, you will usually combine:
- textbooks and lecture notes,
- carefully chosen websites,
- and occasionally simplified versions of scientific papers.
Using Search Tools Effectively
When searching for information (in a library catalog, scientific database, or on the web), biologists:
- Clarify the question first
- What exactly do I want to know?
- Am I looking for: a definition, an overview, methods, data, or current research?
- Choose suitable keywords
- Use scientific terms where possible:
Instead of “blood stuff,” search forblood pressure regulation,erythrocytes, orhemoglobin. - Use combinations of words:
photosynthesis light intensity experiment,yeast fermentation temperature. - Use filters and operators
- Quotation marks for exact phrases:
"cell membrane structure". - Logical operators:
ANDnarrows the search:enzyme AND temperature AND activity.ORbroadens it:hormone OR endocrine.NOTexcludes terms:virus NOT computer.- Time filters (e.g., last 5–10 years) for recent research.
- Check multiple sources
- One search result is rarely enough; compare several sources for consistency.
Evaluating Biological Information
Not all information is equally trustworthy. Biologists must judge quality before using or citing something.
Basic Criteria of Reliability
When you find information, ask:
- Who is the author?
- Is it a researcher, teacher, institution (university, museum, scientific society), or an unknown individual?
- Are qualifications or affiliations given?
- Where is it published?
- Scientific journal, textbook from a reputable publisher, official organization website, or a random blog/post?
- Peer‑reviewed publications have undergone expert checking.
- How current is it?
- Check the publication or update date.
- Some areas (e.g., molecular biology, genetics) change quickly; older sources may be outdated.
- Are sources cited?
- Reliable texts show where information came from (references, bibliography, links to studies).
- Vague claims with no references are less trustworthy.
- Is the language objective?
- Scientific writing: precise, cautious, avoids absolute statements.
- Be skeptical of emotional language, exaggerations, or sensationalism (“miracle cure”, “proves that … without doubt”).
Recognizing Common Problems
- Mixing opinion with fact
- Distinguish between:
- observations/data (“In 80% of tested plants, leaf area decreased…”)
- interpretations (“This suggests that…”)
- opinions (“Therefore, we should never…”).
- Cherry-picking
- Only showing data that support a claim and hiding contradicting results.
- Reliable sources discuss limitations and conflicting studies.
- Conflict of interest
- Sometimes the author or sponsor may benefit from a particular conclusion (e.g., a company presenting results about its own product).
- This does not automatically mean the data are false, but it calls for extra caution.
- Misuse of numbers
- Check whether percentages, averages, and graphs are clearly explained (sample size, units).
- Very small sample sizes or missing information about how data were collected reduce trustworthiness.
Processing Biological Information
Processing means turning raw information or data into something understandable and usable.
From Raw Data to Organized Data
Biological data can be counts, measurements, images, sequences, or observations. Typical steps:
- Collecting data systematically
- Use standardized units (cm, g, °C, s, etc.).
- Write down methods and conditions (time, location, equipment, sample size).
- Recording data
- Use tables or digital spreadsheets.
- Keep original notes or lab book entries unchanged; corrections should be visible (no erasing that hides mistakes).
- Grouping and classifying
- Organize similar observations together (e.g., by species, treatment group, time point).
- Use clear labels and headings.
- Checking for errors
- Look for impossible values (e.g., negative lengths, temperatures outside the expected range).
- Repeat suspicious measurements if possible.
Simple Data Analysis for Beginners
In early biology work, data analysis is usually basic but still follows scientific logic:
- Calculate simple descriptive values
- For example:
- Mean (average) height of plants in two treatment groups.
- Range (difference between largest and smallest value).
- These give a first impression but do not prove significance.
- Look for patterns, not just single numbers
- Does one group consistently have higher or lower values?
- Is there a trend over time (growth curves, changes in rate)?
- Use diagrams to visualize data
- Line graphs for changes over time.
- Bar charts for comparing groups.
- Scatter plots for relationships between two variables (e.g., light intensity vs. photosynthesis rate).
Interpretation is always linked back to the original question:
What do the data suggest? What do they not show?
Presenting Biological Information
Presenting information is not just for experts giving talks. School lab reports, posters, and short presentations follow the same principles of clarity and honesty.
Basic Principles of Scientific Presentation
- Clarity
- Simple, precise language; avoid unnecessary jargon for a beginner audience.
- Define important terms when first used.
- Structure
- Typically:
- Question or aim
- Methods (how you did it)
- Results (what you observed/measured)
- Interpretation (what it might mean)
- Keep these distinct—do not mix methods and results in one chaotic text.
- Honesty and transparency
- Report what actually happened, including unexpected outcomes and possible errors.
- Do not change data to fit expectations.
- Audience awareness
- For classmates: use more explanations and simple wording.
- For more advanced audiences: use more technical detail and accepted abbreviations.
Presenting Text
In written work (lab reports, short essays, posters):
- Use clear paragraphs
- One main idea per paragraph.
- Topic sentence at the beginning can help the reader follow your reasoning.
- Explain figures and tables
- Every figure and table should:
- Have a number and title.
- Be discussed in the text (e.g., “Figure 2 shows that…”).
- Axes and units must be labeled.
- Citing sources
- Indicate where you got information that is not your own result or general knowledge.
- Use a consistent citation style (even a simple one), including author, year, and source.
- This allows others to check your sources and avoids plagiarism.
- Use of technical terms
- Use correct biological terminology, but:
- Do not overload sentences with unnecessary technical words.
- Briefly define key terms for a beginner audience.
Presenting Orally
In oral presentations (short talks, group presentations):
- Prepare a logical sequence
- Start with the question or topic.
- Give only the most relevant background.
- Describe your method and show the main results.
- End with the conclusion and, if relevant, open questions.
- Use visual aids effectively
- Slides, posters, or diagrams should:
- Contain key words, not long paragraphs.
- Use readable font sizes and clear colors.
- Emphasize main results, not every detail.
- Explain rather than read
- Do not just read text from slides.
- Use slides as support while you explain in your own words.
- Responding to questions
- If you do not know an answer, say so honestly and suggest how one might find out.
- Distinguish between what your data show and what you are only guessing.
Ethical Aspects of Information Use
Working with information in biology also has ethical dimensions:
- Avoiding plagiarism
- Do not present other people’s wording or ideas as your own.
- Paraphrase (write in your own words) and still cite the source.
- Handling images and data
- Use images, graphs, or data only with permission or if they are clearly allowed for educational reuse.
- Always attribute the source of figures and photos.
- Responsible interpretation
- Be careful not to overstate what results mean, especially in sensitive topics (health, environment, evolution, etc.).
- Acknowledge limitations and uncertainty.
Developing these habits early prepares you for more advanced biological work and helps you participate responsibly in discussions about biological issues in society.