Table of Contents
Behavioral biology is a broad field that brings together methods and questions from many disciplines. Within it, several subfields have formed that focus on particular kinds of behavior, particular organisms, or particular approaches. Below are some of the most important and commonly mentioned subfields and how they differ in focus and method.
Ethology (Classical Animal Behavior Research)
Ethology is the historically oldest core of behavioral biology. It focuses mainly on:
- Describing and classifying behaviors in animals
- Studying behavior under natural or near-natural conditions
- Understanding the adaptive value and evolution of behavioral patterns
Typical features:
- Detailed observations of whole animals in their environment
- Interest in “innate” (instinctive) patterns and fixed action patterns
- Use of concepts such as key stimuli, motivation, and innate releasing mechanisms
Ethology laid much of the foundation for modern behavioral biology, especially in questions about how behavior increases survival and reproductive success.
Comparative Psychology
Comparative psychology grew largely within psychology rather than biology. Its focus is on:
- Comparing learning, memory, and problem-solving across species
- Understanding general principles of behavior and cognition
- Often using controlled laboratory experiments
Typical features:
- Strong emphasis on learning processes (e.g., conditioning)
- Study of a limited set of species, often model organisms (rats, pigeons, primates)
- Quantitative experiments with standardized tasks
Where ethology traditionally prioritized natural settings, comparative psychology prioritized controlled environments and psychological concepts.
Sociobiology and Behavioral Ecology
Sociobiology and behavioral ecology focus on how behavior is shaped by ecological conditions and evolutionary processes, especially in social contexts.
Core questions:
- How does behavior contribute to survival and reproductive success (fitness)?
- Why do animals live alone or in groups?
- Under what conditions do cooperation, altruism, or aggression evolve?
Behavioral ecology highlights:
- Costs and benefits of behavioral strategies
- Variation in behavior depending on environment (resources, predators, mates)
- Use of models from evolutionary theory and game theory (e.g., optimal foraging, mating systems, conflict strategies)
Sociobiology originally emphasized social behavior (e.g., in ants, bees, primates) and sparked debates when extended to humans.
Neuroethology
Neuroethology links behavior to the nervous system. It asks:
- How are specific natural behaviors (e.g., echolocation, bird song, prey capture) generated by neural circuits?
- How do sensory systems extract biologically relevant information?
- How does the nervous system transform sensory input into motor output?
Characteristics:
- Focus on natural, species-specific behaviors
- Combination of field-like behavioral observations with neurobiological techniques
- Study of “model behaviors” in species particularly suited for a given question (e.g., weakly electric fish, songbirds, owls, bats)
Neuroethology sits at the intersection of behavioral biology and neurobiology.
Cognitive Ethology and Animal Cognition
Cognitive ethology and animal cognition research examine mental processes underlying behavior:
- Perception, attention, memory
- Problem-solving and tool use
- Social cognition (e.g., recognizing individuals, understanding social relationships)
- Self-recognition and possible forms of consciousness
Typical approaches:
- Experiments that infer cognitive abilities from behavior
- Tasks designed to test learning, planning, or perspective-taking
- Comparisons between species with different ecological and social lives
These subfields explore not just “what” animals do, but “how” they might process information about their world.
Human Ethology and Evolutionary Psychology
Some subfields focus specifically on humans in an evolutionary and comparative framework.
Human ethology:
- Documents and compares human behavior patterns across cultures
- Looks for species-typical behavior (e.g., facial expressions, certain gestures)
- Emphasizes observation and cross-cultural comparisons
Evolutionary psychology:
- Applies evolutionary concepts to human behavior and mental traits
- Asks how certain psychological tendencies might have increased reproductive success in ancestral environments
- Uses hypotheses about “adaptive problems” humans faced during their evolutionary history
Both fields situate human behavior within the broader context of animal behavior and evolution.
Behavioral Endocrinology
Behavioral endocrinology investigates interactions between hormones and behavior:
- How hormones affect behaviors such as aggression, mating, parental care, and stress responses
- How behaviors themselves influence hormone levels (feedback)
- Seasonal and developmental changes in behavior linked to hormonal changes
Key characteristics:
- Measurement and manipulation of hormone levels
- Focus on life-history stages (puberty, reproduction, aging) and rhythms (daily, seasonal)
- Integration with physiology and ecology
This subfield clarifies how internal chemical signals modulate behavioral readiness and performance.
Behavioral Genetics
Behavioral genetics examines how genetic variation relates to behavioral variation:
- Which aspects of behavior have a genetic component?
- How do multiple genes and environmental factors interact to shape behavior?
- How does selection on behavior lead to genetic change?
Methods include:
- Breeding experiments (e.g., selecting for high vs. low aggression)
- Twin and family studies (especially in humans)
- Modern molecular methods to link genes, neural function, and behavior
Behavioral genetics connects individual differences in behavior to underlying hereditary factors.
Applied Animal Behavior and Animal Welfare Science
In applied contexts, knowledge from behavioral biology is used to solve practical problems:
- Improving housing and handling of farm animals, laboratory animals, and pets
- Designing enrichment to promote natural behaviors and reduce stress
- Assessing and promoting animal welfare through behavioral indicators
Subfields include:
- Veterinary behavioral medicine (behavioral problems, treatment)
- Zoo and aquarium behavior management
- Behavioral aspects of conservation (e.g., reintroductions, human–wildlife conflict)
These areas translate theoretical insights into concrete improvements for animals under human influence.
Behavioral Physiology
Behavioral physiology focuses on the immediate physical mechanisms that enable behavior:
- Muscle function and movement control
- Energy supply during activity
- Autonomic (involuntary) regulation of internal states during behavior (e.g., heart and breathing rates during flight or escape)
This subfield bridges classic physiology (circulation, respiration, metabolism) with observable behavior.
Conservation Behavior
Conservation behavior (or conservation behavioral biology) applies behavioral principles to:
- Support species and habitat conservation
- Improve reintroduction and translocation programs
- Reduce negative interactions between humans and wildlife (e.g., crop raiding, roadkill)
Examples of questions:
- How does habitat fragmentation alter movement and mating behavior?
- How can knowledge of migration routes and orientation behavior guide conservation measures?
- Which behavioral traits predict success in captive breeding or reintroduction?
This subfield shows how behavior is crucial for survival in changing environments.
Behavioral Ecology of Humans in Modern Environments
A growing area looks at human behavior in current ecological and social environments:
- How do evolved behavioral tendencies interact with modern conditions (e.g., urbanization, technology)?
- Which mismatches between past selection pressures and present environments influence health, social structures, and decision-making?
It links evolutionary insights with public health, social sciences, and environmental issues.
Overlaps and Interconnections
The boundaries between these subfields are not rigid:
- A study of bird song may combine ethology, neuroethology, behavioral endocrinology, and behavioral genetics.
- Research on parental care in mammals may involve behavioral ecology, physiology, hormones, and cognition.
- Human-related questions often combine human ethology, evolutionary psychology, behavioral genetics, and social sciences.
This network of subfields allows behavioral biology to address behavior from multiple perspectives—from genes and neurons to social systems and ecosystems.