Identity, Religion, and Society

Layers of Identity in Israel and Palestine

Identity in Israel and Palestine is shaped by overlapping layers. People usually do not define themselves by a single label such as “Israeli” or “Palestinian.” Instead, national, religious, ethnic, linguistic, class, gender, and generational identities interact in complex ways. These layers can sometimes reinforce each other and sometimes pull in different directions.

For many Jewish Israelis, identity combines a sense of belonging to the Jewish people, citizenship in the State of Israel, and specific cultural backgrounds such as Ashkenazi, Mizrahi, Ethiopian, or Russian. For Palestinians, identity usually links peoplehood and connection to the land with experiences of displacement, occupation, or minority status, along with regional roots such as being from Galilee, Hebron, Gaza, or a particular village or refugee camp. Within both societies, there are also citizens, residents, and people in diaspora, each with a distinct relationship to the land and to political authority.

These identities are constantly shaped by historical events, state policies, education systems, family memories, and day to day interactions. They are not fixed, and people can emphasize different parts of who they are depending on context, such as at home, at work, in religious settings, or in political debate.

Jewish Israeli Identities

Jewish Israelis are often formally unified by citizenship and participation in common institutions, yet internally they are divided by religious observance, ethnic background, and political outlook. One important distinction is between secular, traditional, religious Zionist, and ultra Orthodox communities. This is often referred to in Hebrew as the “religious spectrum,” though the lines are fluid.

Secular and traditional Jews may see Judaism mainly as a culture, peoplehood, or heritage, and may focus more on Hebrew language, Israeli customs, and national symbols than on religious law. Religious Zionists typically combine observant Jewish practice with strong support for a Jewish nation state, and for some of them, settlement in territories captured in 1967 has a religious meaning. Ultra Orthodox or Haredi communities often prioritize Torah study and strict religious observance, and may have complex or ambivalent attitudes toward the state, its institutions, and its secular laws.

Ethnic background adds another layer. Jews whose families came from Europe or North America, often called Ashkenazim, have historically held many elite positions in politics, universities, and the economy. Jews whose families came from the Middle East and North Africa, commonly called Mizrahim, and communities such as Ethiopian and Russian speaking Jews, have had different social experiences and sometimes different political priorities. Tensions over status, discrimination, and cultural recognition continue to shape how people see themselves and others.

Military service, Hebrew language, and shared media and holidays together create a sense of a common Israeli identity for many Jewish citizens. At the same time, disagreements over religion’s place in public life, over the boundaries of the state, and over relations with Palestinians can divide communities sharply. For some, being “Jewish” and “Israeli” are inseparable, while others stress a more civic idea of Israeliness that could, in theory, include all citizens equally.

Palestinian Identities in Different Spaces

Palestinian identity today is fragmented by geography and legal status. People who consider themselves Palestinian live in the West Bank, Gaza, East Jerusalem, inside Israel as citizens or residents, in refugee camps in neighboring Arab countries, and across a global diaspora. Each group has its own everyday conditions and legal framework, which strongly shape how identity is lived.

Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza usually experience being Palestinian as tied to occupation, checkpoints, restricted movement, and the politics of local authorities. They may emphasize village or city roots, family networks, clan affiliations, and links to refugee camps or original towns lost in 1948. For many, being Palestinian is linked to the experience of not having full control over borders, resources, or political destiny.

Palestinian citizens of Israel, sometimes called “Arab Israelis” in official language, live inside the state and hold Israeli citizenship but are part of the wider Palestinian people. Many navigate a double identity, feeling Palestinian in language, culture, and historical memory, yet also interacting daily with state institutions, Hebrew language, and Jewish majority culture. The term that people choose for themselves, such as “Palestinian citizen of Israel,” “Arab citizen of Israel,” or simply “Arab,” can itself be a political and personal statement.

Refugees living in Lebanon, Jordan, Syria, and further abroad often maintain a strong sense of Palestinian identity despite decades away from the land of their families. Stories of villages, keys to lost homes, and commemorations of displacement help keep this identity alive. At the same time, younger generations may be shaped by the society where they grew up, speaking different dominant languages, holding different passports, and facing different forms of discrimination or opportunity.

Religion in Daily Life and Social Structure

Religion influences personal lives, family structures, and public norms in both societies. In practice, it appears less as abstract theology and more through rituals, holidays, dietary rules, dress, marriage customs, and moral expectations.

In many Jewish Israeli families, Shabbat meals, Passover, Yom Kippur, and other holidays mark the rhythm of the year, even for people who are not strictly observant. Religious law, or halakha, is administered in matters such as marriage and divorce for Jews, which gives rabbinical courts an important role in personal status. This is one reason religion remains central in politics around family law, public transport on Shabbat, and the recognition of different Jewish streams.

Among Palestinians, Islam plays a major role, especially Sunni traditions, though there are also Christian Palestinians of various denominations. Mosques, churches, and religious charities are often important social centers, particularly where state services are limited. Religious scholars and leaders can have significant influence over family life and local community norms, including matters such as inheritance, marriage, and gender roles.

Religious practice varies widely. Some people pray daily and organize their lives around religious teachings. Others see themselves as culturally Muslim, Christian, or Jewish, but may not follow all religious rules. In mixed cities or workplaces, people often negotiate religious differences quietly through everyday accommodations, such as arranging meeting times around prayer or fasting, or sharing greetings and gifts on each other’s holidays.

Sacred Places and Local Belonging

Religious sites in the region are also key anchors of identity. Cities such as Jerusalem, Hebron, Nazareth, Bethlehem, and Safed have layered meanings for different communities. Access to or exclusion from these sites affects how people feel about belonging and about justice.

For many Jewish Israelis, visiting or praying at Western Wall plazas, holy graves of rabbis, or sites linked to biblical narratives can reinforce the sense that their national story is connected to specific physical locations. For Palestinians, regular prayer at mosques and churches, including Al Aqsa Mosque compound and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, connects religious devotion to claims of historical presence and rights in the city.

Restrictions on access, such as permits, checkpoints, or age limits during sensitive periods, can turn ordinary religious practices into experiences of control or exclusion. These experiences can deepen grievances but also strengthen community solidarity, as people develop rituals and narratives about perseverance, patience, and steadfastness in relation to sacred spaces.

Gender, Family, and Social Expectations

Gender roles and family structures in Israel and Palestine are shaped by religion, tradition, state policies, and economic change. In both societies, family is usually a central unit of social life and support, and expectations around marriage, children, and care for elders are strong.

In many Palestinian communities, extended families and clans can play an important role in social status, conflict resolution, and political influence. Decisions such as marriage can involve negotiations between families, and honor and reputation may be communal as much as individual. Patriarchal norms still exist in many areas, affecting women’s freedom of movement, employment, and political participation, though there are also strong women’s organizations and activists who work to expand rights and opportunities.

In Israeli society, patterns differ between secular, national religious, ultra Orthodox, and Palestinian citizen communities. Fertility rates, women’s employment, and expectations around military service all vary by group. For Jewish Israelis, mandatory military service for most Jewish men and many Jewish women shapes life paths, career networks, and notions of adulthood and citizenship. Palestinian citizens of Israel are usually exempt, which creates different trajectories and sometimes affects social trust between groups.

Across both peoples, social changes influenced by global trends, higher education, urbanization, and social media have led many younger people to question traditional gender roles. Debates over LGBTQ rights, domestic violence, and legal protections are part of broader conversations about what kind of societies Israelis and Palestinians want to build, beyond the national conflict.

Language, Education, and Identity Formation

Language is a key marker of belonging. Hebrew and Arabic both carry deep historical and religious meanings, and in the present, they also signal power relations and social boundaries. Most Jewish Israelis speak Hebrew as their main language, with many also using Russian, Amharic, French, or English in family or community settings. Palestinian communities use Arabic as a primary language, alongside Hebrew among citizens of Israel and many workers, and sometimes English or other languages in diaspora or among elites.

Schools transmit not only language skills but also stories about the past, interpretations of the present, and ideas about the future. Separate schooling systems, for Jewish and Arab citizens in Israel and for different authorities in the West Bank and Gaza, mean that children often grow up with little direct contact with the other side and with very different official narratives. Textbooks, national ceremonies, and school trips all contribute to how children imagine “us” and “them.”

Bilingual schools and joint educational initiatives exist, although they serve a small fraction of students. In these spaces, identity is sometimes reimagined in more inclusive or hybrid terms, but students still carry the broader pressures and fears of their communities. Higher education and study abroad can also open new ways of thinking about self and society, and can connect young people to global discourses on rights, decolonization, nationalism, and religion.

Religion and Politics in Public Space

Religion is deeply entangled with politics and public space. In both societies, religious parties and leaders play a role in shaping laws, public discourse, and policy. Questions such as who controls religious sites, who has authority over marriage and conversion, and whether religious law should influence state law are all politically charged.

In Israeli politics, religious Zionist and ultra Orthodox parties often press for policies that reflect their values, such as support for religious education systems, recognition of yeshiva study as an alternative to military service, and greater religious regulation of public life. Secular and more liberal religious groups push back, advocating for civil marriage, public transport on Shabbat, and a clearer separation between religion and state. These debates are not only about faith; they are also about identity, class, and control over national symbols.

Among Palestinians, religious movements operate within a context of occupation, fragmented governance, and social struggle. Islamic movements and religious parties present visions of society that include moral codes and social welfare, sometimes in contrast to secular nationalist leadership. Christian communities and leaders often navigate between their minority status, international church networks, and local Palestinian identity. In all cases, religion can be used to legitimize political choices, but it can also be a language for criticizing injustice and calling for ethical conduct.

Intergroup Contact, Segregation, and Everyday Coexistence

Patterns of daily life bring some Israelis and Palestinians into close contact, while separating others almost completely. Cities that have both Jewish and Palestinian residents, such as Haifa, Jaffa, Lod, or parts of Jerusalem, contain mixed neighborhoods, shared workplaces, and common public spaces, yet also sharp lines of segregation, different schools, and economic gaps.

In the West Bank, checkpoints and separate road systems limit many Palestinians’ movement, while Israeli settlers and soldiers are present in different ways. Workplaces, such as construction sites or hospitals, can become important spaces of interaction, where people learn each other’s language and daily concerns. At the same time, unequal power relations and legal systems make these encounters complicated and sometimes tense.

Civil society initiatives, joint cultural projects, and interfaith groups try to create more equal spaces for meeting and dialogue. Participants in such efforts often develop more nuanced views of the other side, but they remain a small minority. For many people, the main image of the other comes from media, education, and stories within their own community, which can emphasize fear, victimhood, and mistrust.

Generational Change and Emerging Identities

Younger generations in Israel and Palestine inherit memories and narratives from their parents and grandparents, but they also grow up in very different technological and cultural conditions. Social media, streaming platforms, global music, and fashion connect teenagers in Ramallah, Tel Aviv, Gaza City, and diaspora communities to global youth cultures, sometimes creating shared reference points that cross national lines.

At the same time, young people may experience the conflict more directly in their own lives, through military service, clashes, arrests, social media footage of violence, or economic hardship. These experiences shape whether they feel hopeful about coexistence, committed to particular ideologies, or cynical about all political actors.

Some young Israelis explore more critical views of state policies and traditional narratives, while others embrace more assertive nationalist and religious positions. Among Palestinians, some youth engage in nonviolent activism, cultural expression, or professional careers that navigate international spaces, while others turn to more confrontational forms of resistance. In both societies, generational shifts can create tensions within families about what it means to be loyal, realistic, or moral.

Society Beyond the Conflict

Although the conflict is central, many aspects of identity, religion, and society in Israel and Palestine do not fit neatly into conflict categories. People pursue art, sports, business, education, and personal relationships that are not always directly about politics, even if the conflict is in the background. Popular culture, humor, food, and local slang all contribute to a sense of everyday normality within extraordinary circumstances.

At the same time, the lines between “normal life” and the conflict are often thin. Military call ups, closure of roads, sudden escalations, or decisions by religious or political authorities can quickly change daily routines. This constant potential for disruption influences how people plan their futures, how secure they feel, and how they imagine life for their children.

Identity, religion, and society in this context are therefore not just abstract categories. They are living, changing structures that shape how individuals experience safety, dignity, and belonging, and they set the stage on which any future political arrangements will have to operate.