Causative Constructions

Overview of Causative Constructions in Persian

Causative constructions allow you to say that someone makes or causes someone else to do something, or makes something happen. In English you often use “make,” “have,” or “get” for this. In Persian there is a regular morphological system for forming causatives from many verbs, and there are also periphrastic patterns that use ordinary verbs like “to do” and “to make.”

This chapter focuses on the main causative patterns in standard Iranian Persian at an upper intermediate level. More advanced stylistic and literary uses belong to later chapters.

The Core Idea of Causative Meaning

Persian expresses causative meaning when the subject does not perform the action directly, but causes another participant to perform it or undergo it.

Compare:

من کتاب می‌خوانم.
man ketâb mi-xânam.
“I read a book.”

من او را کتاب می‌خوانم.
man u-râ ketâb mi-xânam.
This sentence is wrong in Persian, because you cannot “read someone” a book like in English “read someone a book.”

Instead Persian uses a causative pattern:

من به او کتاب می‌خوانم.
man be u ketâb mi-xânam.
“I read a book to him / her.”

Here the subject still does the action directly. Now compare with a true causative:

معلم بچه‌ها را کتاب خواند.
mo’allem bache-hâ-râ ketâb xând.
“The teacher made the children read a book.”

The teacher does not read. The teacher causes the children to read. That is causative meaning.

Morphological Causatives: The Prefix «ـانـ / ـونـ»

Persian can turn some intransitive verbs into transitive or causative verbs by inserting a causative element in the verb root. In modern colloquial Iranian Persian the main productive pattern uses «ـونـ / ـانـ» inside the root.

A very clear pair is:

خوابیدن
xâbidan
“to sleep”

خواباندن
xâbândan
“to put (someone) to sleep, make (someone) sleep”

In the present stem you see:

می‌خوابد
mi-xâbad
“he / she sleeps”

می‌خواباند
mi-xâbânad
“he / she puts (someone) to sleep”

Another frequently used pair is:

نشستن
nešastan
“to sit, to sit down”

نشاندن
nešândan
“to seat (someone), to make (someone) sit”

Example:

بچه روی صندلی نشست.
bache ru-ye sandali nešast.
“The child sat on the chair.”

مادر بچه را روی صندلی نشاند.
mâdar bache-râ ru-ye sandali nešând.
“The mother sat the child on the chair / made the child sit on the chair.”

In these causative verbs, the original intransitive subject becomes a direct object, usually marked with «را / râ» in definite contexts.

Common Intransitive / Causative Verb Pairs

At B2 level you should recognize the most common pairs even if you do not produce all of them actively yet. Here are important examples:

1. خوابیدن / xâbidan “to sleep”
   خواباندن / xâbândan “to put to sleep”
2. نشستن / nešastan “to sit, sit down”
   نشاندن / nešândan “to seat, make sit”
3. ایستادن / istâdan (often colloquial istâdan) “to stand, stop”
   ایستاندن / istândan “to make (someone or something) stop / to stop (something)”
   In modern speech this is often replaced by «نگه‌داشتن / negah-dâštan» for “to stop something / someone” and by periphrastic patterns, but you may see «ایستاندن» in written registers.
4. آشنا شدن / âšnâ šodan “to become acquainted”
   آشنا کردن / âšnâ kardan “to introduce, to make familiar”
5. سرد شدن / sard šodan “to become cold”
   سرد کردن / sard kardan “to cool, make cold”
6. گرم شدن / garm šodan “to become warm”
   گرم کردن / garm kardan “to heat, warm up”

Note that in some pairs the causative is not made by «ـانـ / ـونـ» directly inside the root, but rather uses the light verb «کردن / kardan». These are sometimes called analytic or periphrastic causatives, but semantically they work the same way.

Example:

آب سرد شد.
âb sard šod.
“The water became cold.”

باد پنجره را باز کرد و اتاق سرد شد.
bâd panjare-râ bâz kard va otâq sard šod.
“The wind opened the window and the room became cold.”

Heater as a causer:

بخاری اتاق را گرم می‌کند.
boxâri otâq-râ garm mi-konad.
“The heater warms the room.”

The Role of «کردن» as a General Causative

The verb «کردن / kardan» is extremely flexible and often functions as a causative light verb with adjectives, nouns, and participles. It allows you to express the idea “to make X (adjective), to cause X to be Y.”

Examples:

تمیز / tamiz “clean”
تمیز کردن / tamiz kardan “to clean, to make clean”

خسته / xaste “tired”
خسته کردن / xaste kardan “to tire (someone), to make tired”

عصبانی / asabâni “angry”
عصبانی کردن / asabâni kardan “to anger (someone), make someone angry”

پاک / pâk “clean, pure”
پاک کردن / pâk kardan “to clean, to erase, to wipe away”

Example sentences:

این کار مرا خسته می‌کند.
in kâr marâ xaste mi-konad.
“This work makes me tired.”

او همیشه مرا عصبانی می‌کند.
u hamishe marâ asabâni mi-konad.
“He / she always makes me angry.”

This pattern can also combine with many nouns that describe states, roles, or events, especially in more formal or written style:

مجبور / majbur “forced, compelled”
مجبور کردن / majbur kardan “to force, to compel”

قانع / ghâne‘ “convinced”
قانع کردن / ghâne‘ kardan “to convince”

امیدوار / omidvâr “hopeful”
امیدوار کردن / omidvâr kardan “to give hope, to make hopeful”

Example:

او مرا مجبور کرد بروم.
u marâ majbur kard beravam.
“He made me go.” (More literal: “He forced me that I go.”)

In this last sentence you see a combination of a causative with a subjunctive clause, but the details of the subjunctive are treated in a different chapter. Here the important point is that «مجبور کردن» adds causative meaning.

«دادن» as a Causative Light Verb

Another important verb with causative function is «دادن / dâdan». Its basic meaning is “to give,” but in combination with many non-finite forms it develops a causative nuance, often corresponding to English “to have someone do something” or “to get something done.”

A frequent pattern is:

گذاشتن / gozâštan “to put, to leave”
گذاشتن + object + to-infinitive can give “to let, to allow,” which is permissive causation and is covered elsewhere.

Here we look at «دادن» combined with past participles or verbal nouns.

Example:

نوشتن / neveshtan “to write”
نوشته / nevešte “written” (past participle)

نامه را نوشتم.
nâme-râ neveshtam.
“I wrote the letter.”

نامه را نوشتم و دادم.
nâme-râ neveshtam o dâdam.
“I wrote and gave the letter.”

But with another subject:

من نامه را نوشتم، او فرستاد.
man nâme-râ neveshtam, u ferestâd.
“I wrote the letter, he / she sent it.”

Causative through «دادن» usually appears more clearly in combinations with other verbal elements:

او نامه را امضا کرد.
u nâme-râ emzâ kard.
“He signed the letter.”

او نامه را امضا داد.
u nâme-râ emzâ dâd.
“He got the letter signed / had the letter signed.”
(The meaning can be ambiguous, so context is necessary. In modern colloquial speech speakers may prefer explicit periphrastic forms to avoid ambiguity.)

A clearer, common causative structure uses «دادن» with an infinitive or verbal noun governed by a preposition like «برای / barâye» or «به / be». This form typically expresses “to send someone to do X” or “to arrange that someone does X.”

Examples:

بچه را دکتر بردیم.
bache-râ doktor bordim.
“We took the child to the doctor.”

بچه را دکتر نشان دادیم.
bache-râ doktor nešân dâdim.
“We showed the child to the doctor.”

Here «نشان دادن / nešân dâdan» itself is a compound verb meaning “to show.” It is not a causative built in the same way, but it illustrates how «دادن» can carry the light verb function.

For more directly causative use:

ماشین را تعمیر دادم.
mâšin-râ ta‘mir dâdam.
“I had the car repaired.”
(I did not repair it myself. I caused someone, usually a mechanic, to repair it.)

موهایم را کوتاه کردم.
mu-hâyam-râ kutâh kardam.
“I cut my hair.” (I myself did the cutting.)

موهایم را کوتاه دادم.
mu-hâyam-râ kutâh dâdam.
“I had my hair cut.” (I caused someone else, e.g. a hairdresser, to cut it.)

Double Object Patterns in Causatives

Causative constructions often involve two objects. One object is the “causee,” the person or thing that is made to act or undergo something. The other object is the theme or patient of the action.

Consider:

معلم بچه‌ها را مشق نوشتن یاد داد.
mo’allem bache-hâ-râ mašgh neveshtan yâd dâd.
“Teacher taught the children to write homework.”

Here:

معلم / mo’allem is the causer.
بچه‌ها را / bache-hâ-râ are the causees.
مشق / mašgh “homework” embedded inside «مشق نوشتن / mašgh neveshtan» is the theme.

In a simpler causative with one direct object:

مادر بچه را خواباند.
mâdar bache-râ xâbând.
“Mother put the child to sleep.”

The mother is the causer. The child is both causee and undergoer of the action “sleep.” There is only one object.

If you add another object, Persian often uses prepositions to keep roles clear:

مادر بچه را روی تخت خواباند.
mâdar bache-râ ru-ye taxt xâbând.
“Mother put the child to sleep on the bed.”

Note that «روی تخت / ru-ye taxt» is a prepositional phrase, not a second direct object.

Where a causative verb is already transitive, adding another object may require rephrasing or a different structure.

For example:

خوردن / xordan “to eat”
خوراندن / xorândan “to feed, to make someone eat”

مادر سوپ را خورد.
mâdar sup-râ xord.
“Mother ate the soup.”

مادر به بچه سوپ خوراند.
mâdar be bache sup xorând.
“Mother fed the child soup.” (More literally: “Mother made the child eat soup.”)

Here:

مادر is causer.
بچه with «به / be» marks the causee.
سوپ is direct object, the theme of “eat.”

You can sometimes place the causee as a direct object and move the theme into a prepositional phrase, but «به بچه سوپ خوراندن» is a clear and natural pattern that you should recognize.

Periphrastic Causatives with «باعث شدن» and Similar Verbs

Sometimes causation is not about deliberate control, but about events or conditions that lead to other events. Persian expresses this with verbs like:

باعث شدن / bâ’es šodan
“to cause, to bring about”

سبب شدن / sabab šodan
“to cause, to result in” (more formal)

باعثِ [چیزی] شدن means “to become the cause of [something].”

Examples:

بارانِ شدید باعثِ ترافیک شد.
bârân-e šadid bâ’es-e terâfik šod.
“Heavy rain caused traffic.”

اضطراب او باعث شد اشتباه کند.
eztarâb-e u bâ’es šod eštEbâh konad.
“His / her anxiety caused him / her to make a mistake.”

Here the finite verb is «شدن / šodan», and causative meaning is in the noun «باعث / bâ’es». This is not a morphological causative of another verb, but it is an important causative construction in actual use.

Contrast this with agentive causatives using «کردن / kardan»:

او باعث شد من دیر برسم.
u bâ’es šod man dir beresam.
“He / she caused me to arrive late.” (Maybe indirectly.)

او مرا مجبور کرد دیر برسم.
u marâ majbur kard dir beresam.
“He / she forced me to arrive late.” (Direct, intentional pressure.)

Causative vs Passive

At this level you must keep causatives distinct from passive forms, especially because in some verbs the same morphological pattern appears in both.

For example, «خوانده شدن / xânde šodan» is a passive combination:

کتاب توسطِ دانشجو خوانده شد.
ketâb tavassot-e dânešju xânde šod.
“The book was read by the student.”

Here the focus is not on who “made” someone read, but on the book undergoing the action of “being read.”
In contrast, a causative would focus on an agent causing another agent to do the reading:

استاد دانشجو را مجبور کرد کتاب را بخواند.
ostâd dânešju-râ majbur kard ketâb-râ bexânad.
“The professor made the student read the book.”

Another example:

در باز شد.
dar bâz šod.
“The door opened.” (Intransitive, no causer mentioned.)

من در را باز کردم.
man dar-râ bâz kardam.
“I opened the door.” (Transitive but not causative of another agent, I directly did it.)

باد در را باز کرد.
bâd dar-râ bâz kard.
“The wind opened the door.” (Event causation, but not constructed with a specific causative morpheme.)

Compare with a true causative of an agent:

من او را مجبور کردم در را باز کند.
man u-râ majbur kardam dar-râ bâz konad.
“I made him / her open the door.” (Causative of an action performed by another agent.)

The formal passive and the causative may both reduce or change the apparent subject, but their semantics differ. Passive removes or backgrounds the agent, while causative introduces both a causer and a causee.

Degrees of Causation: Make, Let, Help

Causation can be strong, weak, or permissive. Persian uses different verbs and constructions to show this nuance. Detailed modality belongs to other chapters, but causative constructions interact closely with these meanings.

Strong, coercive causation:

مجبور کردن / majbur kardan “to force, to compel”
وادار کردن / vâdâr kardan “to compel” (formal)

او مرا مجبور کرد عذرخواهی کنم.
u marâ majbur kard ozr-xâhi konam.
“He / she forced me to apologize.”

Weaker causation, encouragement, or influence:

تشویق کردن / tašvigh kardan “to encourage”
ترغیب کردن / targeeb kardan “to induce, persuade” (formal)

او مرا تشویق کرد فارسی بخوانم.
u marâ tašvigh kard fârsi bexânam.
“He / she encouraged me to study Persian.”

Permissive causation, allowing:

گذاشتن / gozâštan “to let, to allow”
اجازه دادن / ejâze dâdan “to permit”

او گذاشت من بروم.
u gozâšt man beravam.
“He / she let me go.”

او به من اجازه داد بروم.
u be man ejâze dâd beravam.
“He / she gave me permission to go.”

These verbs clearly signal different degrees of control. Structurally they behave much like other causative verbs, often followed by a subordinate clause with subjunctive.

Causative Meaning with «شدن» and «کردن» Alternation

Many Persian verbs come in a pair with «شدن / šodan» and «کردن / kardan». Very often, the «شدن» form expresses an intransitive change of state (“to become X”), while the «کردن» form is causative (“to make X”).

Examples:

تمیز شدن / tamiz šodan “to become clean”
تمیز کردن / tamiz kardan “to clean, to make clean”

خیس شدن / xis šodan “to get wet”
خیس کردن / xis kardan “to wet, to make wet”

رنگی شدن / rangi šodan “to become colored”
رنگی کردن / rangi kardan “to color, to dye”

Example pairs:

لباس‌ها خیس شدند.
lebâs-hâ xis šodand.
“The clothes got wet.”

باران لباس‌ها را خیس کرد.
bârân lebâs-hâ-râ xis kard.
“The rain made the clothes wet.”

دیوارها سفید شدند.
divâr-hâ sefid šodand.
“The walls became white.”

ما دیوارها را سفید کردیم.
mâ divâr-hâ-râ sefid kardim.
“We made the walls white.” (We painted them.)

This alternation is so systematic that it gives you a powerful tool: if you know the “become X” form with «شدن», you can often form the causative “make X” with «کردن», and vice versa.

Causatives in Compound Verbs

Persian compound verbs, which combine a non-verbal element with a light verb like «کردن / kardan», «شدن / šodan», or «دادن / dâdan», often come in causative-like pairs too.

For instance:

ترسیدن / tarsidan “to be afraid” (simple verb)
ترساندن / tarsândan “to frighten, to scare” (causative)

But in contemporary language, many speakers instead use periphrastic compound verbs:

ترسیدن / tarsidan “to be afraid”
ترساندن / tarsândan “to scare” (still used)
ترس دادن / tars dâdan “to scare” (colloquial, with «دادن» as light verb)

Example:

بچه از تاریکی ترسید.
bache az târiki tarsid.
“The child was afraid of the dark.”

صدای بلند بچه را ترساند.
sedâ-ye boland bache-râ tarsând.
“The loud sound scared the child.”

or colloquial:

صدای بلند بچه را ترس داد.
sedâ-ye boland bache-râ tars dâd.
“The loud sound scared the child.”

You will encounter both patterns, particularly in spoken language and informal writing. At B2 level you should be able to interpret them as causatives even if you do not use every variant.

Word Order and Focus in Causatives

Persian word order remains basically Subject Object Verb (SOV) in causative constructions. However, because causatives often have more than one object or several arguments, the order can influence information focus.

Typical neutral order is:

[Subject] [Causee (often with «را»)] [Theme / Object] [Other phrases] [Causative verb]

Example:

استاد دانشجو را خیلی سؤال پرسیدن تمرین داد.
ostâd dânešju-râ xeili so’âl porsidan tamrin dâd.
“The professor gave the student practice in asking many questions.”
(Here «تمرين دادن / tamrin dâdan» is “to give practice.”)

If you want to highlight the theme instead of the causee, you can move it before:

استاد سؤال‌پرسیدن را به دانشجو تمرین داد.
ostâd so’âl-porsidan-râ be dânešju tamrin dâd.
“The professor gave the student practice in asking questions.”
(Focus on “asking questions” as the main new information.)

However, the principles of emphasis and word order belong to another chapter. The key point here is that causative verbs can take multiple objects, and their ordering interacts with discourse focus.

Summary of Main Causative Strategies

To consolidate, it is helpful to see the main patterns side by side with simple, concrete examples.

1. Morphological causative on the root:

نشستن / nešastan “to sit”
نشاندن / nešândan “to seat, make sit”

بچه نشست.
bache nešast.
“The child sat.”

مادر بچه را نشاند.
mâdar bache-râ nešând.
“The mother made the child sit.”

2. «X شدن» vs «X کردن»:

اتاق گرم شد.
otâq garm šod.
“The room became warm.”

بخاری اتاق را گرم کرد.
boxâri otâq-râ garm kard.
“The heater warmed the room.”

3. Adjective or noun + «کردن»:

این خبر مرا خوشحال کرد.
in xabar marâ xošhâl kard.
“This news made me happy.”

این کار او را عصبانی کرد.
in kâr u-râ asabâni kard.
“This action made him / her angry.”

4. “Have something done” with «دادن»:

ماشین را تعمیر دادم.
mâšin-râ ta‘mir dâdam.
“I had the car repaired.”

لباس‌ها را شستم و اتو دادم.
lebâs-hâ-râ šostam o otu dâdam.
“I washed the clothes and had them ironed.”

5. Event causation with «باعث شدن»:

کارِ زیاد باعثِ خستگی شد.
kâr-e ziyâd bâ’es-e xastegi šod.
“Too much work caused tiredness.”

صدای بلند باعث شد بچه بترسد.
sedâ-ye boland bâ’es šod bache betarsad.
“The loud sound caused the child to be afraid.”

Understanding these patterns and recognizing the verbs that frequently participate in them will greatly improve your ability to read and interpret complex Persian sentences, especially in formal texts and narratives.

Vocabulary List for This Chapter