Table of Contents
Context of the Letters
In the later Madinan period, after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and before the conquest of Makkah, the position of the Prophet ﷺ in Arabia became more secure. The Quraysh had signed a truce, various tribes had entered into alliances with the Muslims, and the community in Madinah was growing in strength, organization, and clarity of purpose.
It was in this context that the Prophet ﷺ began to send formal letters to rulers outside Arabia. These letters did not come from a weak or hidden group, but from a community that had already survived battles, persecution, and internal challenges, and now began to look beyond the borders of the Hijaz.
The Quran had already framed the mission of the Prophet ﷺ as universal, not tribal and not limited to the Arabs alone:
وَمَا أَرْسَلْنَاكَ إِلَّا كَافَّةً لِّلنَّاسِ بَشِيرًا وَنَذِيرًا
“And We have not sent you, except to all mankind as a bringer of glad tidings and a warner.”
(Surah Saba 34:28)
The letters to kings and rulers were a clear, historical embodiment of this universal mission. They turned the message of Islam from a local Arabian call into an open, written invitation to the existing world powers of that time.
The letters of the Prophet ﷺ to kings and rulers marked the beginning of Islam’s direct, formal address to the global powers of the age, announcing that his mission was for all humanity.
Timing and Purpose of the Letters
The letters were sent in the period after Hudaybiyyah, around the 6th and 7th year after Hijrah. The truce with Quraysh gave the Prophet ﷺ space to focus on dawah beyond Makkah and its immediate tribal environment. According to authentic reports, he ﷺ used this opportunity to send envoys with written messages to various rulers inviting them to Islam.
One important historical detail is that these letters were not random, casual attempts. They followed a pattern. The Prophet ﷺ identified the major political centers around Arabia, such as the Byzantine Empire, the Persian Empire, Abyssinia, and neighboring regional rulers, and then addressed each through a trusted messenger.
The core purpose of these letters was to call the rulers personally and their peoples collectively to the worship of Allah alone, to recognize the prophethood of Muhammad ﷺ, and to accept Islam. At the same time, they showed that Islam was a faith that engaged the world of politics, diplomacy, and international relations while remaining grounded in its spiritual and moral message.
The Prophet ﷺ made his intent clear in the wording used in these messages. Many of them contained the same concise and powerful formula based on a verse of the Quran:
قُلْ يَا أَهْلَ الْكِتَابِ تَعَالَوْا إِلَىٰ كَلِمَةٍ سَوَاءٍۢ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَكُمْ أَلَّا نَعْبُدَ إِلَّا ٱللَّهَ وَلَا نُشْرِكَ بِهِۦ شَيْـًٔا وَلَا يَتَّخِذَ بَعْضُنَا بَعْضًا أَرْبَابًا مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ فَإِن تَوَلَّوْا فَقُولُوا۟ ٱشْهَدُوا۟ بِأَنَّا مُسْلِمُونَ
“Say, O People of the Book, come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allah, associate no partners with Him, and that none of us take others as lords besides Allah. But if they turn away, then say, Bear witness that we are Muslims (submitting to Allah).”
(Surah Aal Imran 3:64)
This verse was directly quoted in at least one of the letters, showing that the written invitations were a practical application of the Quranic instruction.
The essential purpose of the letters was not political conquest, but a clear, written invitation to tawhid (worship of Allah alone) and acceptance of the Messenger ﷺ, based on the Quranic message.
The Use of the Seal and Formality of the Letters
Before sending letters to emperors and kings, the Prophet ﷺ considered the protocols of international communication at that time. When he wished to write to foreign rulers, he was advised that powerful kings would not read a letter that did not carry a seal.
Anas ibn Malik رضي الله عنه narrated:
لَمَّا أَرَادَ النَّبِيُّ ﷺ أَنْ يَكْتُبَ إِلَى الرُّومِ، قِيلَ لَهُ: إِنَّهُمْ لَا يَقْرَءُونَ كِتَابًا إِلَّا أَنْ يَكُونَ مَخْتُومًا، فَاتَّخَذَ خَاتَمًا مِنْ فِضَّةٍ، فَكَأَنِّي أَنْظُرُ إِلَى بَيَاضِهِ فِي يَدِهِ، وَنُقِشَ فِيهِ: مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ
“When the Prophet ﷺ wanted to write to the Romans, he was told, They do not read a letter unless it is sealed. So he made a ring from silver, and it is as if I can still see its whiteness in his hand. It was engraved with: Muhammad Rasul Allah (Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah).”
(Sahih al Bukhari)
The engraving was arranged as three lines:
$$
\begin{aligned}
\text{الله} \\
\text{رسول} \\
\text{محمد}
\end{aligned}
$$
This seal was not a decoration. It meant that the letters were official state communications from the Prophet ﷺ as both Messenger of Allah and leader of the Muslim community in Madinah. It also showed that the Prophet ﷺ observed the dignified customs of correspondence without compromising the truth of his message.
The silver seal with the words “Muhammad Rasul Allah” symbolized both prophethood and leadership. It gave the letters a recognized diplomatic form while clearly declaring their religious origin.
The Letter to Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium
Among the most detailed and famous accounts is the letter sent to Heraclius, the Byzantine emperor. The letter was carried by Dihyah al Kalbi رضي الله عنه, who delivered it to the local governor until it reached Heraclius.
The wording is preserved in Sahih al Bukhari, narrated by Abdullah ibn Abbas رضي الله عنهما. The letter began with the Islamic formula of greeting and then called the emperor to Islam in a clear and respectful way:
بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم
من محمد عبد الله ورسوله إلى هرقل عظيم الروم، سلام على من اتبع الهدى، أما بعد فإني أدعوك بدعاية الإسلام، أسلم تسلم، يؤتك الله أجرك مرتين، فإن توليت فإن عليك إثم الأريسيين،
وَيَا أَهْلَ الْكِتَابِ تَعَالَوْا إِلَىٰ كَلِمَةٍ سَوَاءٍ بَيْنَنَا وَبَيْنَكُمْ أَلَّا نَعْبُدَ إِلَّا ٱللَّهَ وَلَا نُشْرِكَ بِهِ شَيْـًٔا وَلَا يَتَّخِذَ بَعْضُنَا بَعْضًا أَرْبَابًا مِّن دُونِ ٱللَّهِ ۚ فَإِن تَوَلَّوْا فَقُولُوا۟ ٱشْهَدُوا۟ بِأَنَّا مُسْلِمُونَ
“In the Name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate. From Muhammad, the slave of Allah and His Messenger, to Heraclius, the great one of the Romans. Peace be upon those who follow the guidance. To proceed, I invite you with the call of Islam. Accept Islam and you will be safe. Allah will give you your reward twice. But if you turn away, then upon you will be the sin of the peasants under you.
O People of the Book, come to a word that is just between us and you, that we worship none but Allah, associate no partners with Him, and that none of us take others as lords besides Allah. But if they turn away, then say, Bear witness that we are Muslims (submitting to Allah).”
(Sahih al Bukhari)
Several key points stand out in this letter.
The Prophet ﷺ addressed Heraclius respectfully as “great one of the Romans.” This showed courtesy without exaggeration and without using religious titles that would contradict Islamic belief.
He identified himself as “the slave of Allah and His Messenger,” affirming both his humility as a servant of God and his rank as a prophet.
He summarized the message in the phrase “Accept Islam and you will be safe,” linking salvation and safety to acceptance of Islam.
He reminded Heraclius that his acceptance would bring double reward because he was both a person of the previous scripture and a leader whose Islam could influence others. If he refused, he would bear responsibility for misguiding those under his authority.
Finally, he rooted the whole call in a verse of the Quran directed at the People of the Book.
Heraclius’s reaction, as recorded in Sahih al Bukhari, shows that he took the letter seriously. He investigated the background of the Prophet ﷺ by questioning a Qurayshi trader, Abu Sufyan, who at that time was still a leader among the disbelievers of Makkah. Heraclius concluded that this was likely the awaited prophet, but he did not openly accept Islam. His hesitation and fear of losing power prevented him from following what he recognized.
The letter to Heraclius combined respect, clarity, and firmness. It invited him to Islam, promised reward, warned of responsibility, and based the whole message on a direct Quranic call to the People of the Book.
The Letter to Kisra, Ruler of Persia
The Prophet ﷺ also sent a letter to Kisra (Khosrow), the emperor of the Persian Empire. The wording followed the same pattern of beginning in the name of Allah and calling to Islam, though the exact full text is not preserved in as much detail in authentic narrations as the letter to Heraclius.
What is clear from authentic reports is the reaction of Kisra. Unlike Heraclius, who showed at least some cautious respect and investigation, Kisra responded with contempt. When the letter was read to him, he tore it apart.
The Prophet ﷺ was informed of this reaction. Abdullah ibn Abbas رضي الله عنهما narrated that when Kisra tore up the letter, the Prophet ﷺ said:
مَزَّقَ اللَّهُ مُلْكَهُ
“May Allah tear his kingdom apart.”
(Sahih al Bukhari)
History recorded that Persia did eventually collapse as a major power, and its territory came under Muslim rule during the caliphate after the Prophet ﷺ. The tearing of the letter symbolized Kisra’s rejection of the message of Islam, and the statement of the Prophet ﷺ showed the seriousness of rejecting a clear, personal invitation from the Messenger of Allah.
The Prophet ﷺ did not respond to this rejection by abandoning the message or lowering its content. Instead he maintained the same call, confident in Allah’s promise that the truth would ultimately prevail:
هُوَ ٱلَّذِىٓ أَرْسَلَ رَسُولَهُۥ بِٱلْهُدَىٰ وَدِينِ ٱلْحَقِّ لِيُظْهِرَهُۥ عَلَى ٱلدِّينِ كُلِّهِۦ وَلَوْ كَرِهَ ٱلْمُشْرِكُونَ
“He is the One who has sent His Messenger with guidance and the religion of truth, to make it prevail over all other religions, even if the polytheists dislike it.”
(Surah at Tawbah 9:33)
The Letter to Najashi, King of Abyssinia
Najashi, the ruler of Abyssinia (al Habashah), had already shown fairness and sympathy to the Muslims when they sought refuge in his land earlier. Now, as part of the wider outreach, the Prophet ﷺ sent him a formal letter inviting him personally to Islam.
In the sources, some accounts about Najashi’s Islam are stronger and clearer than others. The best supported reports show that he accepted Islam, at least in his personal faith, and that the Prophet ﷺ later performed the funeral prayer in absentia for him when he died.
The general theme of the letter was similar to the others, affirming that Isa عليه السلام is a servant and messenger of Allah, a word from Him that He cast to Maryam, and that true faith is to worship Allah alone, without partners, and to believe in all His messengers.
The call to Najashi was especially focused on correcting beliefs about Isa عليه السلام in a respectful way, suitable for a Christian ruler who already believed in one God and in revelation, but whose community held beliefs about the nature of Isa that Islam came to correct.
According to the most reliable narrations, Najashi responded positively, treated the Muslim expatriates with honor, and did not hand them over to the Quraysh when they tried to pressure him. The Prophet ﷺ later said about him:
مَاتَ الْيَوْمَ رَجُلٌ صَالِحٌ
“Today a righteous man has died.”
(Sahih Muslim)
Then he ﷺ led the companions in Salat al Janazah for Najashi. This prayer in absentia is one of the proofs that Najashi had indeed believed in the message brought by the Prophet ﷺ, even though his acceptance was not publicly shared with his people in a detailed political way.
Letters to Other Regional Rulers
In addition to Heraclius, Kisra, and Najashi, the Prophet ﷺ sent letters to several other important rulers around Arabia. Among those mentioned in authentic and reliable reports are:
The ruler of Egypt (Muqawqis). He received the letter, examined it, and is reported to have shown some respect. He sent gifts back to Madinah, including a servant woman, Mariyah al Qibtiyyah, who became the mother of the Prophet’s son Ibrahim. However, there is no clear, authentic evidence that he embraced Islam, and the Prophet ﷺ’s letter had clearly called him to accept the message, not just to show politeness.
The ruler of Bahrain and other local chieftains in the Arabian Gulf region. Some of these accepted Islam or accepted the authority of the Prophet ﷺ while keeping administrative control over their areas. This formed part of the spread of Islam across the eastern parts of the Arabian Peninsula before the Prophet’s passing.
The chiefs in Yemen and nearby regions. Several letters were sent to invite them to Islam, to explain basic teachings, and to instruct them on how to govern their people justly if they accepted the faith. These letters often came with companions who were sent as teachers and judges, like Muadh ibn Jabal رضي الله عنه.
The general pattern in these letters remained consistent. The Prophet ﷺ:
Began in the name of Allah, the Most Merciful, the Most Compassionate.
Identified himself as the slave of Allah and His Messenger.
Addressed the ruler in a respectful but measured way, such as “great one of such and such people” without treating them as divine or semi divine.
Invited them to Islam clearly with phrases like “Accept Islam and you will be safe.”
Connected the message to previous revelations when addressing Jews and Christians, or called to pure monotheism for pagan rulers.
Across all letters, the Prophet ﷺ preserved three key elements: respect in address, clarity in inviting to Islam, and firm commitment to tawhid and prophethood without compromise.
Style, Content, and Principles of the Letters
The letters of the Prophet ﷺ followed a recognizable structure that reflected both revelation and wisdom. For beginners studying the Seerah, it is useful to notice the main elements, because they show how he combined dawah and diplomacy.
First, the letters were short, clear, and free of unnecessary ornament. They were easy to read and remember. The Prophet ﷺ did not crowd them with political demands or worldly bargaining.
Second, the greeting used was not a generic greeting, but “Peace be upon those who follow the guidance.” This phrase offered peace as a blessing, while linking it to the acceptance of guidance.
Third, the central invitation was always direct. It did not hide behind vague words. Phrases such as “I invite you with the call of Islam. Accept Islam and you will be safe” summarized the entire purpose. Safety here included safety in this life from misguidance and conflict with the truth, and safety in the next life from punishment.
Fourth, scriptural backing was provided. The quote of Surah Aal Imran 3:64 in the letter to Heraclius is a clear example. The Prophet ﷺ did not invent a new diplomatic language separated from revelation, but used the Quran as the foundation of his communication, especially with the People of the Book.
Fifth, personal and political responsibility was emphasized. In the letter to Heraclius, he was told that if he accepts, he gets reward twice, but if he rejects, then he bears the sin of those under his rule. This shows that leadership carries a heavier accountability before Allah.
Sixth, the letters maintained a noble tone even when the rulers were enemies or disbelievers. The Prophet ﷺ did not insult them or mock their positions. His language was dignified, which reflects his character and the Quranic command:
ٱدْعُ إِلَىٰ سَبِيلِ رَبِّكَ بِٱلْحِكْمَةِ وَٱلْمَوْعِظَةِ ٱلْحَسَنَةِ وَجَادِلْهُم بِٱلَّتِى هِىَ أَحْسَنُ
“Call to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction, and argue with them in a way that is best.”
(Surah an Nahl 16:125)
Reactions of the Rulers and Their Significance
The reactions to the letters varied, and each response carried a lesson.
Heraclius showed interest, questioned Abu Sufyan, and almost admitted the truth, but then stepped back. His response illustrates how worldly power and fear of people can prevent a person from following what they recognize as true.
Kisra responded with hostility, tearing the letter. His arrogance and contempt led to a supplication from the Prophet ﷺ that his kingdom be torn apart, and within a relatively short historical period, that empire collapsed and its territories came under Muslim rule.
Najashi accepted the message and treated the Muslims with justice. The Prophet ﷺ honored him as a righteous man and prayed for him in absentia, showing that sincere faith is recognized by Allah even if it is not loudly announced before all people.
Muqawqis and others showed outward respect and returned gifts, but did not truly accept Islam. Their partial or diplomatic acceptance without genuine faith did not protect them from accountability before Allah.
These different outcomes highlight a key principle: the duty of the Prophet ﷺ was to convey the message fully and clearly. Guidance in hearts is controlled by Allah alone.
إِنَّكَ لَا تَهْدِى مَنْ أَحْبَبْتَ وَلَٰكِنَّ ٱللَّهَ يَهْدِى مَن يَشَآءُ
“You certainly do not guide whom you love, but Allah guides whom He wills.”
(Surah al Qasas 28:56)
The letters also marked the beginning of a new phase. The world powers could no longer ignore Islam as a distant tribal movement. They had been formally informed by the Messenger himself that a final revelation had come and that they were invited to follow it.
After the letters were delivered, the excuse of ignorance was lifted from those rulers. They had received a clear, personal call from the final Messenger ﷺ.
Lessons from the Letters for the Expansion of Islam
For understanding the Seerah, the letters to kings and rulers show how the expansion of Islam was rooted first in dawah, not simply in military campaigns. Before large scale confrontations with empires, their leaders had already been directly invited to Islam.
Several lessons stand out.
Islam is universal. The Prophet ﷺ did not limit his call to Arabs or to the tribes around Madinah. His letters crossed borders, languages, and cultures. This reflects the Quranic statement:
وَمَآ أَرْسَلْنَـٰكَ إِلَّا رَحْمَةً لِّلْعَـٰلَمِينَ
“And We have not sent you except as a mercy to all the worlds.”
(Surah al Anbiya 21:107)
Dawah precedes confrontation. The Prophet ﷺ offered guidance first. He sent letters and messengers before any major conflicts with those empires. This shows that war in the Seerah came after clear invitations had been refused or after aggression, not as the first step.
Respect and clarity can exist together. The Prophet ﷺ addressed kings with courtesy and recognized their positions, but he never hid or softened the core message of tawhid. Modern readers can see that true dignity in communication lies in combining good manners with honest conviction.
Leadership carries weight. The letters reminded rulers that they would be held responsible for the choices they made and for how those choices affected their peoples. This concept of accountability before Allah is central to the way Islam views power and authority.
Written communication can have far reaching impact. The short letters of the Prophet ﷺ changed the course of history, even when they were rejected. They planted the testimony of Islam in the courts of world powers, prepared the ground for future encounters, and remain preserved as an enduring record of his universal mission.
Conclusion
The letters to kings and rulers are a distinct and important part of the final years of the Prophet’s life ﷺ. They show him not only as a teacher within a small community, but as a Messenger to all humanity who addressed emperors and kings with confidence, humility, and revelation based clarity.
These letters mark a turning point in the Seerah. From them onward, Islam is openly present on the stage of world history. The Prophet ﷺ had conveyed the message to both the simple and the powerful, the poor and the wealthy, the desert tribes and the imperial courts. His duty of delivery was fulfilled with precision, and through these letters, the expansion of Islam became a matter of recorded appeal, not hidden ambition.
For a beginner studying the Seerah, remembering the image of these letters, sealed with “Muhammad Rasul Allah,” carried by trusted companions across deserts and seas, helps to understand that the life of the Prophet ﷺ was always shaped by the belief that his mission was for every land and every people until the end of time.