Table of Contents
The Spread of Islam Across Arabia
From a City-State to a Peninsula-wide Mission
By the final years of the Prophet’s ﷺ life, Islam had moved from being the faith of a small persecuted group in Makkah to the unifying belief of most of the Arabian Peninsula. What began with a secret call in Makkah and then a small community in Madinah developed into a broad and deep transformation of tribes, cities, and regions across Arabia.
This spread was not only military or political. It was a spread of belief, law, ethics, and a new sense of identity, in which people saw themselves as part of the Ummah of Muhammad ﷺ. Allah describes this transformation:
إِذَا جَاءَ نَصْرُ اللَّهِ وَالْفَتْحُ
وَرَأَيْتَ النَّاسَ يَدْخُلُونَ فِي دِينِ اللَّهِ أَفْوَاجًا
فَسَبِّحْ بِحَمْدِ رَبِّكَ وَاسْتَغْفِرْهُ ۚ إِنَّهُ كَانَ تَوَّابًا
“When the help of Allah comes and the victory,
and you see the people entering into the religion of Allah in multitudes,
then glorify the praises of your Lord and seek His forgiveness. Indeed, He is ever accepting of repentance.”
(Surah An Nasr 110:1‑3)
These verses, revealed near the end of the Prophet’s life, describe not a single battle but a wave of mass acceptance, “in multitudes,” across Arabia.
Unification after Hudaybiyyah and the Conquest of Makkah
The spread of Islam across Arabia cannot be understood without the turning points that preceded it. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah opened the doors for peaceful interaction and da‘wah to tribes that previously saw Muslims only as an enemy. Later, the peaceful conquest of Makkah removed the central idol center of Arabia and broke the most powerful opposition.
After the conquest, Quraysh itself accepted Islam. Once Quraysh submitted, the prestige and authority of the Prophet ﷺ increased among the Arabs. Tribes that had hesitated until they “saw what Quraysh would do” now began to review their positions. A well-known report mentions that many desert tribes would say before the conquest: “Leave him and his people. If he overcomes them he is truly a prophet.” When they saw that Allah had granted him victory over his own people, they came in delegations.
Allah points to this pattern:
هُوَ الَّذِي أَرْسَلَ رَسُولَهُ بِالْهُدَىٰ وَدِينِ الْحَقِّ لِيُظْهِرَهُ عَلَى الدِّينِ كُلِّهِ ۚ وَكَفَىٰ بِاللَّهِ شَهِيدًا
“He is the One who has sent His Messenger with guidance and the religion of truth to make it manifest over all religion. And sufficient is Allah as Witness.”
(Surah Al Fath 48:28)
After Makkah, this “manifesting” of the truth began to appear clearly across the peninsula, not as forced conversion, but as the evident dominance of Islam as the guiding religion and law of the land.
The “Year of Delegations” and Mass Acceptance
In the final years, especially after the conquest of Makkah and the Battle of Hunayn, delegations from across Arabia began to arrive in Madinah. This period is often called “‘Ām al-Wufūd,” the Year of Delegations.
Tribal leaders came to meet the Prophet ﷺ, listen to the Qur’an, ask questions, and either accept Islam or agree to peaceful terms under Muslim rule. The Qur’an speaks generally of these waves of people entering Islam, as we saw in Surah An Nasr. Many hadith collections narrate specific stories of these delegations, such as those of the tribes of Thaqif, Tamim, and others.
Among the famous events is the story of the delegation of ‘Abd al-Qays, who came willingly, asking about faith and practice. The Prophet ﷺ said to them:
«آمُرُكُمْ بِالإِيمَانِ بِاللَّهِ وَحْدَهُ، أَتَدْرُونَ مَا الإِيمَانُ بِاللَّهِ وَحْدَهُ؟ شَهَادَةُ أَنْ لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا اللَّهُ، وَأَنَّ مُحَمَّدًا رَسُولُ اللَّهِ…»
“I command you to have faith in Allah alone. Do you know what faith in Allah alone is? It is to testify that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah…”
(Sahih Muslim)
Through such visits, entire tribes learned Islam directly from the Prophet ﷺ and then returned as teachers to their people.
The Role of Da‘wah and Teaching, Not Only Battles
Although battles took place in some regions, the spread of Islam across Arabia was largely through da‘wah, treaties, and education. The Prophet ﷺ would send knowledgeable companions as teachers, judges, and leaders to newly Muslim or allied tribes.
For example, he sent Mu‘adh ibn Jabal رضي الله عنه to Yemen as a teacher and judge. The famous hadith describes the Prophet ﷺ guiding Mu‘adh on how to invite people:
«إِنَّكَ تَقْدَمُ عَلَى قَوْمٍ مِنْ أَهْلِ الْكِتَابِ، فَلْيَكُنْ أَوَّلَ مَا تَدْعُوهُمْ إِلَيْهِ شَهَادَةُ أَنْ لَا إِلَهَ إِلَّا اللَّهُ، وَأَنِّي رَسُولُ اللَّهِ…»
“You are going to a people from the People of the Book. Let the first thing to which you invite them be the testimony that there is no god but Allah, and that I am the Messenger of Allah…”
(Sahih al Bukhari, Sahih Muslim)
This shows that the Prophet ﷺ saw the spread of Islam as a process of clear invitation and teaching, beginning with correct belief.
Key principle: The primary method for spreading Islam was clear da‘wah to tawhid, patient teaching, and just governance, while fighting was limited to necessary cases and not the norm for conversion.
Where people accepted Islam, the Prophet ﷺ would send someone to teach them the Qur’an, salah, zakah, and the basic laws of Islam. Where people did not yet embrace Islam but agreed to peaceful coexistence and accepted Muslim rule, he honored treaties and protected them.
Regional Spread Across the Peninsula
By the end of the Prophet’s life, Islam had reached all major regions of the Arabian Peninsula, from the Hijaz to Najd, from Yemen to the northern frontiers.
In the Hijaz, Makkah and Madinah became the twin centers of faith and governance. Ta’if, after earlier rejection, eventually accepted Islam. The tribes of Aws and Khazraj in Madinah had already become the Ansar, and surrounding tribes followed with time.
In central Arabia, various powerful tribes gradually entered Islam, especially after seeing the stability and justice of the Muslim state and the protection it offered. The defeat of those who persisted in aggression against Muslims also played a role in showing that resisting the Messenger ﷺ would not succeed.
In Yemen and southern Arabia, Islam entered through both personal da‘wah and organized missions. The Prophet ﷺ sent companions to teach, judge, and organize zakah and other obligations. Reports mention that large numbers of people in Yemen accepted Islam during the Prophet’s lifetime, so that by the time of his passing, it was one of the firmly Muslim regions.
In the north and on the frontiers, some tribes accepted Islam directly, while others agreed to treaties and protection. The letters to kings and rulers, and the initial contact with neighboring powers, helped place Arabia within a wider network, with Islam as the rising faith at its heart. The neighboring Romans and Persians were already aware that a new religious and political force had appeared in Arabia.
A New Identity for the Arabs
The spread of Islam did more than change religious beliefs. It changed how people understood themselves. Before Islam, tribal identity was supreme. People were first and foremost members of a tribe who competed and often fought with other tribes. With Islam, a new shared identity emerged, the identity of the Ummah.
Allah describes this Ummah:
كُنْتُمْ خَيْرَ أُمَّةٍ أُخْرِجَتْ لِلنَّاسِ تَأْمُرُونَ بِالْمَعْرُوفِ وَتَنْهَوْنَ عَنِ الْمُنْكَرِ وَتُؤْمِنُونَ بِاللَّهِ
“You are the best nation that has been raised up for mankind. You enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and believe in Allah.”
(Surah Al ‘Imran 3:110)
Across Arabia, as people accepted Islam, they increasingly saw themselves as part of this “best nation,” whose purpose was worship of Allah and service to mankind, not just defense of tribal pride and interest.
The Prophet ﷺ strongly emphasized that no tribe or race had superiority merely by lineage. He said in his well-known statement:
«يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ، أَلَا إِنَّ رَبَّكُمْ وَاحِدٌ، وَإِنَّ أَبَاكُمْ وَاحِدٌ، أَلَا لَا فَضْلَ لِعَرَبِيٍّ عَلَى أَعْجَمِيٍّ، وَلَا لِأَعْجَمِيٍّ عَلَى عَرَبِيٍّ، وَلَا لِأَحْمَرَ عَلَى أَسْوَدَ، وَلَا لِأَسْوَدَ عَلَى أَحْمَرَ، إِلَّا بِالتَّقْوَى»
“O people, your Lord is one and your father is one. There is no superiority of an Arab over a non Arab, nor of a non Arab over an Arab, nor of a red (skinned) over a black, nor of a black over a red, except by taqwa.”
(Reported in Musnad Ahmad)
This message reshaped social values and helped to unify previously divided groups under one faith and one moral standard.
Social and Legal Transformation Across the Land
As Islam spread, so did its laws and moral teachings. The new Muslim regions began to apply Islamic rules in marriage, inheritance, trade, and justice, gradually replacing practices of injustice, riba, tribal revenge, and exploitation.
The Qur’an was not revealed only for a small group in Madinah. Its guidance was meant to shape the entire society:
وَكَذَٰلِكَ جَعَلْنَاكُمْ أُمَّةً وَسَطًا لِتَكُونُوا شُهَدَاءَ عَلَى النَّاسِ وَيَكُونَ الرَّسُولُ عَلَيْكُمْ شَهِيدًا
“Thus We have made you a justly balanced nation so that you may be witnesses over mankind and the Messenger may be a witness over you.”
(Surah Al Baqarah 2:143)
In practice, this meant that as areas accepted Islam, they began to look to Madinah for guidance in judging disputes, organizing zakah, and learning what Allah had made lawful and unlawful. The Prophet ﷺ was not just a spiritual guide, but also a teacher of law and a model of just leadership.
Stability Before the Prophet’s Passing
By the time of the Farewell Pilgrimage, the spread of Islam across Arabia had reached a point where, for the first time, the vast majority of the peninsula shared one religion and one central leadership. Over one hundred thousand Muslims are reported to have attended Hajj with the Prophet ﷺ during Hajj al Wada‘.
During that pilgrimage, the Prophet ﷺ delivered the Farewell Sermon, summing up the principles that now governed the society which had spread across Arabia. Among his words were:
«أَلَا إِنَّ دِمَاءَكُمْ وَأَمْوَالَكُمْ وَأَعْرَاضَكُمْ عَلَيْكُمْ حَرَامٌ، كَحُرْمَةِ يَوْمِكُمْ هَذَا، فِي شَهْرِكُمْ هَذَا، فِي بَلَدِكُمْ هَذَا»
“Indeed, your blood, your wealth, and your honor are sacred for you, like the sanctity of this day of yours, in this month of yours, in this city of yours.”
(Sahih al Bukhari, Sahih Muslim)
These words reflected a new reality. People from all parts of Arabia were hearing together that human life, property, and honor are sacred. This was a clear sign that Islam had not only spread geographically, but had also begun to shape the moral consciousness of the peninsula.
The Foundation for Future Expansion Beyond Arabia
Although this chapter focuses on Arabia itself, it is important to note that the spread of Islam across the peninsula prepared the way for its later spread beyond. When the Prophet ﷺ passed away, there was already a united, believing Ummah in Arabia, with Qur’an, Sunnah, and a functioning Islamic society.
Allah had completed His favor and perfected the religion:
الْيَوْمَ أَكْمَلْتُ لَكُمْ دِينَكُمْ وَأَتْمَمْتُ عَلَيْكُمْ نِعْمَتِي وَرَضِيتُ لَكُمُ الْإِسْلَامَ دِينًا
“Today I have perfected for you your religion, completed My favor upon you, and have chosen for you Islam as religion.”
(Surah Al Ma’idah 5:3)
From this solid base, Islam would soon spread beyond Arabia into lands that had once seemed unreachable to a small persecuted group in Makkah. The transformation of Arabia during the Prophet’s ﷺ final years was the necessary first stage of that global mission.