15.2.1 Human Rights

Introduction

Islam presents human rights as a trust from Allah, not as a gift from any ruler or institution. In the Seerah of the Prophet ﷺ, these rights are not discussed as abstract theories, but as living principles that shaped how he spoke, judged, forgave, and governed. Human beings, in his life and teachings, are honored because of the One who created them, not because of their race, tribe, power, or wealth.

The Seerah shows that the Prophet ﷺ brought a comprehensive view of human rights: the right to life, dignity, security, justice, property, belief, and fair treatment, even for opponents and prisoners. This chapter highlights how these rights appear in his life story, without repeating what will be handled specifically in later chapters about women’s rights, slavery and social justice, or environmental ethics.

Human Dignity as a Divine Gift

The starting point of Islamic human rights is that every human being is honored by Allah. The Quran states:

وَلَقَدْ كَرَّمْنَا بَنِي آدَمَ
“And indeed We have honored the children of Adam.”
(Quran 17:70)

This honor applies to all human beings, Muslim and non Muslim, friend and foe. In Makkah, when Muslims were weak, the Prophet ﷺ still insisted on the dignity of people. He forbade insults at a personal level, and even when condemning idols, he prohibited abusive speech that would provoke people to insult Allah.

Allah said:

وَلَا تَسُبُّوا الَّذِينَ يَدْعُونَ مِن دُونِ اللَّهِ فَيَسُبُّوا اللَّهَ عَدْوًا بِغَيْرِ عِلْمٍ
“And do not insult those they invoke besides Allah, lest they insult Allah in enmity without knowledge.”
(Quran 6:108)

This reflects two core principles. First, even those in error retain human dignity. Second, speech is regulated by justice and wisdom, not by hatred or rage.

In his Farewell Sermon, delivered near the end of his life, the Prophet ﷺ summarized this divine honor clearly:

يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ، إِنَّ رَبَّكُمْ وَاحِدٌ، وَإِنَّ أَبَاكُمْ وَاحِدٌ، لَا فَضْلَ لِعَرَبِيٍّ عَلَى أَعْجَمِيٍّ، وَلَا لِعَجَمِيٍّ عَلَى عَرَبِيٍّ، وَلَا لِأَحْمَرَ عَلَى أَسْوَدَ، وَلَا لِأَسْوَدَ عَلَى أَحْمَرَ، إِلَّا بِالتَّقْوَى
“O people, your Lord is one and your father is one. An Arab has no superiority over a non Arab, nor a non Arab over an Arab, nor a red over a black, nor a black over a red, except by taqwa (piety).”
(Reported by Ahmad)

Here we see that in his final public message, racial and tribal superiority were openly abolished, and a new measure was set, the inner quality of taqwa, known only to Allah.

The Right to Life and Bodily Safety

Among the clearest rights that appear repeatedly in the Seerah is the right to life and protection from unjust harm. The pre Islamic Arabs treated bloodshed, revenge, and tribal wars as normal. The Prophet ﷺ came and declared human life sacred by the command of Allah.

Allah says:

مَن قَتَلَ نَفْسًا بِغَيْرِ نَفْسٍ أَوْ فَسَادٍ فِي الْأَرْضِ فَكَأَنَّمَا قَتَلَ النَّاسَ جَمِيعًا
“Whoever kills a soul, unless for a soul or for corruption in the land, it is as if he has killed all mankind.”
(Quran 5:32)

In the Farewell Sermon, the Prophet ﷺ addressed a huge gathering during Hajj and tied this right to sacred time and sacred place:

إِنَّ دِمَاءَكُمْ، وَأَمْوَالَكُمْ، وَأَعْرَاضَكُمْ، عَلَيْكُمْ حَرَامٌ، كَحُرْمَةِ يَوْمِكُمْ هَذَا، فِي شَهْرِكُمْ هَذَا، فِي بَلَدِكُمْ هَذَا
“Indeed, your blood, your wealth, and your honor are sacred to you, like the sanctity of this day of yours, in this month of yours, in this land of yours.”
(Bukhari and Muslim)

Killing without right was not only forbidden, it was treated as a crime against the entire community and a sin before Allah. Even during warfare, which will be discussed in detail in the chapters about battles, the Prophet ﷺ laid strict limits that protected life:

“Do not kill women, or children, or the old and frail, or those who devote themselves to worship.”
(Reported by Abu Dawud)

These rules show that the right to life is not suspended by enemy status or by conflict. In actual campaigns, when he ﷺ saw a woman killed, he strongly condemned it and forbade such acts. This was a transforming moment in a world that had long devalued the lives of the weak.

Freedom of Belief and Conscience

The Seerah shows that Islam recognizes that belief must be a conscious, willing choice. The Quran declared in Madinah:

لَا إِكْرَاهَ فِي الدِّينِ
“There is no compulsion in religion.”
(Quran 2:256)

This verse was lived practically by the Prophet ﷺ. He invited people to Islam with clarity and patience, but he did not force them. For years in Makkah, he and the early Muslims suffered mockery and persecution, yet they did not retaliate by coercion when their power grew.

In Madinah, many Jewish tribes and some idol worshipers lived under his political authority, yet he allowed them to continue in their religions. The famous document known as the Constitution of Madinah, which will be studied in detail in its own chapter, described Jews in the city as a community with the Muslims, with their own faith preserved. This shows clearly that political loyalty in the city did not erase religious difference, nor did it require forced conversion.

Even at the height of his power in Makkah after the conquest, when many of his former enemies became vulnerable, his general amnesty did not require that they become Muslim. Many chose Islam freely, but the right of conscience and the voluntary nature of faith remained intact.

Equality and the Rejection of Racism and Class Pride

One of the most powerful features of the Prophet’s life is his consistent rejection of racism, tribal arrogance, and class superiority. The Quran cut the root of such pride:

يَا أَيُّهَا النَّاسُ إِنَّا خَلَقْنَاكُم مِّن ذَكَرٍ وَأُنثَىٰ وَجَعَلْنَاكُمْ شُعُوبًا وَقَبَائِلَ لِتَعَارَفُوا ۚ إِنَّ أَكْرَمَكُمْ عِندَ اللَّهِ أَتْقَاكُمْ
“O mankind, We created you from a male and a female and made you into peoples and tribes so that you may know one another. Indeed, the most noble of you before Allah is the most God conscious of you.”
(Quran 49:13)

In his daily dealings, the Prophet ﷺ put this verse into practice. Bilal ibn Rabah, an African former slave, was raised to a position of great honor. The Prophet ﷺ chose him as the first muadhdhin, caller to prayer, a role that made his voice the public sound of Islam in Madinah.

When Abu Dharr once spoke to Bilal with a trace of pre Islamic insult and referred to his mother, the Prophet ﷺ corrected him with very strong words that protect human equality:

إِنَّكَ امْرُؤٌ فِيكَ جَاهِلِيَّةٌ
“You are a man in whom there is some ignorance.”
(Bukhari)

Abu Dharr, who was a sincere believer, humbled himself and placed his cheek on the ground, asking Bilal to step on it if he wished. Bilal forgave him and raised him. This moment, which the Prophet ﷺ initiated by rebuking unacceptable speech, preserved a deeper principle. No believer is allowed to keep the attitudes of pre Islamic ignorance, especially racism or class disdain.

In the Farewell Sermon, the equality of human beings regardless of race or color was made an explicit and public principle, as already quoted. This became one of the most cited texts in discussions of human rights in the Islamic tradition.

Protection of Honor and Reputation

Islamic human rights include not only physical safety, but protection of a person’s honor, name, and reputation. The Prophet ﷺ lived during a time when slander, mockery, and public insults were common tools in tribal social life. Through Quranic revelation and his own teachings, he transformed this.

Allah says:

وَلَا يَغْتَب بَّعْضُكُم بَعْضًا ۚ أَيُحِبُّ أَحَدُكُمْ أَن يَأْكُلَ لَحْمَ أَخِيهِ مَيْتًا فَكَرِهْتُمُوهُ
“And let not some of you backbite others. Would any of you like to eat the flesh of his dead brother You would detest it.”
(Quran 49:12)

The Prophet ﷺ explained that the forbidden backbiting is:

ذِكْرُكَ أَخَاكَ بِمَا يَكْرَهُ
“Your mentioning of your brother with something he dislikes.”
(Muslim)

When his wife Aishah once made a small remark about another woman, hinting at her shortness, the Prophet ﷺ told her she had said a word that, if mixed with the sea, would pollute it. This showed how heavily such speech weighs in the scale of rights and ethics.

In Madinah, when a serious slander was spread against Aishah herself in the incident known as al Ifk, the Prophet ﷺ bore the pain with patience until revelation came, completely clearing her name. The Quran then laid down strict laws against false accusations, including corporal punishment and rejection of the accusers’ testimony, in order to protect honor.

إِنَّ الَّذِينَ يَرْمُونَ الْمُحْصَنَاتِ الْغَافِلَاتِ الْمُؤْمِنَاتِ لُعِنُوا فِي الدُّنْيَا وَالْآخِرَةِ
“Indeed, those who accuse chaste, unaware, believing women are cursed in this world and the Hereafter.”
(Quran 24:23)

Through these rulings and his own examples, the Prophet ﷺ made clear that dignity is not only physical. A person’s name and reputation are part of their rights.

Right to Justice and Fair Treatment

Justice is at the heart of Islamic human rights in the Seerah. It is not limited to legal courts, but includes fairness in speech, judgment, and personal dealings. Allah ordered:

إِنَّ اللَّهَ يَأْمُرُ بِالْعَدْلِ وَالإِحْسَانِ
“Indeed, Allah commands justice and excellence.”
(Quran 16:90)

And He said:

يَا أَيُّهَا الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا كُونُوا قَوَّامِينَ بِالْقِسْطِ شُهَدَاءَ لِلَّهِ وَلَوْ عَلَىٰ أَنفُسِكُمْ أَوِ الْوَالِدَيْنِ وَالأَقْرَبِينَ
“O you who believe, stand firm for justice as witnesses for Allah, even if it be against yourselves or parents and relatives.”
(Quran 4:135)

The Prophet ﷺ embodied this verse. In one case, a woman from a respected noble family of Quraysh stole. Some people wanted to use her status to avoid the legal punishment. They asked Usamah ibn Zayd, who was beloved to the Prophet ﷺ, to intercede. The Prophet’s response preserved equality before the law:

أَتَشْفَعُ فِي حَدٍّ مِنْ حُدُودِ اللَّهِ … إِنَّمَا أَهْلَكَ الَّذِينَ قَبْلَكُمْ أَنَّهُمْ كَانُوا إِذَا سَرَقَ فِيهِمْ الشَّرِيفُ تَرَكُوهُ، وَإِذَا سَرَقَ فِيهِمْ الضَّعِيفُ أَقَامُوا عَلَيْهِ الْحَدَّ، وَايْمُ اللَّهِ لَوْ أَنَّ فَاطِمَةَ بِنْتَ مُحَمَّدٍ سَرَقَتْ لَقَطَعْتُ يَدَهَا
“Do you intercede in one of the limits set by Allah … What destroyed those before you was that when a noble person stole, they left him, but when a weak one stole, they carried out the punishment. By Allah, if Fatimah the daughter of Muhammad were to steal, I would cut off her hand.”
(Bukhari and Muslim)

Here justice is clearly defined as being blind to social status. The Prophet ﷺ did not cancel mercy, but he refused to turn justice into privilege. Mercy was applied before crimes happened and through forgiveness by victims, but not through selective law.

He also taught that judges and leaders bear a heavy responsibility. In one hadith:

الْقُضَاةُ ثَلَاثَةٌ، وَاحِدٌ فِي الْجَنَّةِ، وَاثْنَانِ فِي النَّارِ
“Judges are of three types, one in Paradise and two in the Fire.”
(Abu Dawud)

The one who reaches truth after effort is safe, the unjust and negligent are warned. This hadith made early Muslims view public authority not as privilege, but as an accountable trust.

Right to Security, Property, and Livelihood

The Seerah shows that security of person and property is a basic right. This was directly declared in the Farewell Sermon, as already cited, where the Prophet ﷺ said that wealth is as sacred as blood and honor.

In early Madinah, many of the emigrants had lost their homes, lands, and trade in Makkah. The Prophet ﷺ did not accept permanent deprivation. Agreements and, later, events like the conquest of Makkah restored many rights or created new arrangements to balance losses and gains. He strongly prohibited theft, bribery, and deception, and taught the sanctity of wealth earned lawfully.

The Quran warns:

وَلَا تَأْكُلُوا أَمْوَالَكُم بَيْنَكُم بِالْبَاطِلِ
“And do not consume one another’s wealth unjustly.”
(Quran 2:188)

In markets, he ﷺ personally monitored fairness. Once he put his hand into a pile of grain for sale and found the wet part hidden underneath. He said:

مَا هَذَا يَا صَاحِبَ الطَّعَامِ … مَنْ غَشَّ فَلَيْسَ مِنِّي
“What is this, O owner of the food … Whoever cheats is not of me.”
(Muslim)

By linking cheating to exclusion from his example, he defined economic honesty as a part of human rights. People have a right not to be deceived or exploited in trade, and a right to means of livelihood that are not destroyed by fraud.

Protection of the Weak and Vulnerable

Throughout his mission, the Prophet ﷺ emphasized care for those most likely to be oppressed or ignored. This is an essential dimension of human rights in Islam. The Quran repeatedly mentions orphans, the poor, travelers, and captives.

About orphans, Allah says:

فَأَمَّا الْيَتِيمَ فَلَا تَقْهَرْ
“So as for the orphan, do not oppress him.”
(Quran 93:9)

The Prophet ﷺ grew up as an orphan and knew their vulnerability personally. In Madinah, he inspired the community to take responsibility:

أَنَا وَكَافِلُ الْيَتِيمِ فِي الْجَنَّةِ هَكَذَا
“I and the one who sponsors an orphan will be in Paradise like this.”
And he held his two fingers together.
(Bukhari)

This raised the social duty toward orphans to the level of a path to Paradise.

He also warned strongly against exploiting widows and the poor. He said:

اللَّهُمَّ إِنِّي أُحَرِّجُ حَقَّ الضَّعِيفَيْنِ، الْيَتِيمِ وَالْمَرْأَةِ
“O Allah, I declare the rights of the two weak ones heavy, the orphan and the woman.”
(Reported by Ibn Majah)

This hadith shows that harming these two groups is particularly grave. Their rights are not only legal, but are tied to a direct plea from the Prophet ﷺ to Allah.

Prisoners of war were another vulnerable group. In early battles, when Muslims first had captives, the Prophet ﷺ instructed kindness. Allah praised the righteous who said:

وَيُطْعِمُونَ الطَّعَامَ عَلَىٰ حُبِّهِ مِسْكِينًا وَيَتِيمًا وَأَسِيرًا
“And they give food, in spite of love for it, to the needy, the orphan, and the captive.”
(Quran 76:8)

This verse was revealed regarding Muslims who fed captives generously while they themselves were hungry. This set a standard that even those who had fought against the Muslims retained human rights once captured.

Right to Consultation and Participation

Under the Prophet ﷺ, human beings were not seen as passive subjects. They were participants in the life of the community. Allah commanded him:

وَشَاوِرْهُمْ فِي الْأَمْرِ
“And consult them in the matter.”
(Quran 3:159)

In practice, this meant he ﷺ regularly consulted his companions about community decisions, including in matters of war, defense, and public policy. At Uhud, he accepted the opinion of younger companions who wished to go out of the city, even though his own inclination was different. At Badr and the Trench, he listened closely to the advice of experienced individuals.

This habit of consultation, or shura, affirmed a right that believers have to be heard and involved. It prevented a style of governance based on blind command and created a pattern that Muslim communities were taught to continue.

Mercy in the Application of Rights

While the Seerah affirms strong and clear rights, it also shows that they are applied with mercy, forgiveness, and a concern for hearts. The Prophet ﷺ combined firmness in protecting rights with a readiness to pardon. This balance is a distinctive feature of Islamic human rights.

When he conquered Makkah, those who had persecuted him for years stood in fear. He could have taken revenge. Instead he said:

لَا تَثْرِيبَ عَلَيْكُمُ الْيَوْمَ
“No blame will there be upon you today.”
(Quran 12:92)

He recited the words that Prophet Yusuf عليه السلام had said to his brothers, then declared a general amnesty. Many of his fiercest enemies embraced Islam after tasting this mercy.

At the same time, he was firm when rights were openly violated and public order was threatened. This reflected a constant principle. Private matters were often forgiven, but public injustice and crimes that harmed others were addressed seriously.

This means that defending the rights of others is not optional kindness, it is a religious obligation.

Conclusion

The Seerah of the Prophet ﷺ presents a comprehensive vision of human rights, built on tawhid, human dignity, justice, and mercy. Life, honor, property, belief, equality, and the protection of the weak all appear as sacred trusts. The Prophet ﷺ did not only speak about these rights. He lived them in Makkah under oppression, and in Madinah with authority, in his home, in the market, in treaties, and on the battlefield.

Later chapters will explore particular dimensions, such as the detailed rights of women, the transformation of slavery and social structures, and the relationship to the environment. Together, they complete the picture of how the final Messenger ﷺ laid a permanent foundation for human dignity that remains relevant and binding for Muslims in every time and place.