Table of Contents
A Land Prepared for Revelation
The Arabian Peninsula is a vast, varied land at the meeting point of three continents: Asia, Africa, and Europe. Its mountains, deserts, and coasts formed the stage on which the early life of the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ unfolded and where the final message of Islam was first lived.
In this chapter, we will look at the physical layout of this land, its regions and climate, and how its geography helped shape the people who lived there and prepared the way for the coming of the Prophet ﷺ.
Understanding the geography of Arabia helps explain why Makkah and Madinah became central, why the Arabs had certain customs, and why the early Muslim community developed in the way that it did.
The Position of Arabia in the World
The Arabian Peninsula lies to the south of the Fertile Crescent and Mesopotamia, to the east of Egypt and the Red Sea, to the west of Persia, and to the north of the Indian Ocean. It is almost completely surrounded by water.
To the west is the Red Sea, separating Arabia from northeast Africa. To the south is the Arabian Sea, which opens to the wider Indian Ocean. To the east lies the Persian Gulf, linking Arabia with Persia and lands further east. The peninsula connects by land to the Levant and Iraq in the north.
This position made Arabia a natural bridge between civilizations. Trade routes passed through it from India and Yemen to Syria and beyond. The Quraysh and other tribes used this position to organize caravans to the north and south.
Allah mentions this commercial position when speaking about Quraysh and their journeys:
﴿لِإِيلَافِ قُرَيْشٍ. إِيلَافِهِمْ رِحْلَةَ الشِّتَاءِ وَالصَّيْفِ﴾
“For the accustomed security of Quraysh, their accustomed security in the caravan journeys of winter and summer.”
(Surah Quraysh 106:1–2)
The “winter” journey went generally to Yemen in the south, and the “summer” journey went to Syria in the north. Both routes depended on Arabia’s central position.
General Shape and Size of the Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula is roughly a large rectangle, narrowing slightly in the north. It extends from about the borders of present day Iraq and Jordan in the north down to the Arabian Sea in the south, and from the Red Sea in the west to the Persian Gulf in the east.
It covers more than two million square kilometers, making it one of the largest peninsulas on earth. However, much of this area is desert or semi desert. There are no great rivers like the Nile or the Euphrates flowing through it.
This vast, mostly arid land influenced where people could live. Human settlement concentrated in certain regions with water sources and more fertile soil, while huge stretches remained thinly populated.
Major Geographic Regions
Although people often imagine Arabia as only sand, its geography is actually diverse. There are mountains, high plateaus, gravel deserts, sand seas, oases, and coastal plains.
Broadly, we can think of the peninsula in several major regions: the western highlands and coastal plain, the central plateau and deserts, the southern highlands and Yemen, and the eastern lowlands by the Gulf.
Each of these regions shaped the lives and habits of its inhabitants, including the people who witnessed the birth and rise of Islam.
The Western Highlands and the Hejaz
Along the western side of the peninsula, parallel to the Red Sea, runs a long chain of mountains and highlands. These include the regions of Hejaz and further south, Asir and other ranges.
The Hejaz is the area that contains the two holiest cities in Islam, Makkah and Madinah. It is located between the Red Sea coast and the higher mountains and plateaus inland.
Makkah lies in a valley surrounded by rocky hills and mountains. It is not on the coast but is relatively close to the Red Sea and to inland caravan routes. Madinah lies further to the north, in a wider area with more cultivated land and multiple lava stone tracts and oases.
The Qur’an describes Makkah as a valley with little agriculture:
﴿رَبَّنَا إِنِّي أَسْكَنْتُ مِنْ ذُرِّيَّتِي بِوَادٍ غَيْرِ ذِي زَرْعٍ عِندَ بَيْتِكَ الْمُحَرَّمِ﴾
“Our Lord, I have settled some of my descendants in an uncultivated valley near Your Sacred House.”
(Surah Ibrahim 14:37)
This is the supplication of Ibrahim عليه السلام about the valley of Makkah. It points to the geographical reality: the valley itself did not have rich fields or rivers. Life relied on wells, especially Zamzam, and on trade.
Madinah however had more water and fertile soil. It contained palm groves and cultivated land. Its climate was milder than that of Makkah. This made Madinah suitable to become the base for an organized community when the Prophet ﷺ later migrated there.
The Coastal Plain of Tihamah
Between the Red Sea and the western mountains lies a long narrow coastal plain known as Tihamah. The climate here is very hot and humid, especially in the lower areas by the sea.
The plain is generally dry with scattered towns and ports that were important for trade by sea. Goods from Africa, Yemen, and India could arrive at these ports and then move inland along caravan routes that went up through mountain passes to places like Makkah and beyond.
This coastal strip connected Arabia with the Red Sea and through it to Egypt and further north. Yet the harsh climate meant that its population remained limited compared to more elevated regions.
The Central Plateau and the Deserts
Most of inner Arabia consists of high plateaus, rocky plains, and vast deserts. These central areas form the heart of the peninsula and include large deserts such as the Nafud in the north and the Rub‘ al Khali in the south.
The Nafud is a large sandy desert with dunes and wide open spaces. The Rub‘ al Khali, often called the “Empty Quarter,” is one of the largest sand deserts on earth. It covers a huge area in the south of the peninsula, with very little water or vegetation.
In many parts, the land is not only sand but also gravel plains and rocky areas. There are wadis, which are dry riverbeds that only carry water after rare rains. These wadis sometimes sustain limited vegetation and provide routes for travel.
The central plateau and desert regions favored a lifestyle of nomadic or semi nomadic herding. Many tribes moved with their camels, sheep, and goats, seeking grazing land and water. This mobility encouraged strong tribal bonds and the need to defend wells and pastures.
The Southern Highlands and Yemen
The southern part of Arabia, especially Yemen and the neighboring highlands, differs from the rest in its climate and fertility. The land there rises again into mountains that catch rainfall from clouds coming from the Indian Ocean.
Because of more rain and the use of ancient irrigation systems, the southern regions supported agriculture and even famous civilizations before Islam. Terraced fields on mountain slopes, valleys with crops, and villages with more permanent structures were common.
The Qur’an refers to the people of Saba’ in Yemen and to the gardens they possessed before their dam was destroyed:
﴿لَقَدْ كَانَ لِسَبَإٍ فِي مَسْكَنِهِمْ آيَةٌ جَنَّتَانِ عَنْ يَمِينٍ وَشِمَالٍ﴾
“There was certainly for [the tribe of] Saba’ in their dwelling place a sign, two gardens on the right and on the left.”
(Surah Saba’ 34:15)
This indicates that parts of southern Arabia had a greener environment than the arid north and center. Trade from Yemen, especially incense and spices, traveled north through the rest of the peninsula.
The Eastern Lowlands and the Gulf
On the eastern side of Arabia, along the Persian Gulf, the terrain is generally lower and flatter. There are coastal settlements and inland oases. Some areas near the Gulf have salt flats and shallow waters.
The eastern region connected Arabia to Persia and to the routes leading towards further east. Pearling, fishing, and trade by sea played roles in the economy of these regions, while inland oases provided stations for caravan routes.
This eastern side, though less central in the earliest events of the Seerah, still formed part of the wider Arabian environment from which Islam would later spread.
Climate and Scarcity of Water
Most of the Arabian Peninsula has a hot, dry climate. Summers are very hot, and rainfall is limited and irregular. In some highland areas, temperatures can be cooler and rain more common, but in general water is scarce.
There are no permanent, large rivers. Instead, there are wadis that remain dry most of the year and fill with water only after heavy rains. People depended on wells, springs, and seasonal pools.
This scarcity of water influenced settlement. Towns and permanent villages grew around sources like springs, wells, and oases. Away from these, many people lived as Bedouins who moved around with their animals, seeking grazing areas.
The well of Zamzam in Makkah is a special example. According to authentic reports, it was brought forth for Hajar and her son Isma‘il عليهما السلام in the barren valley. The Prophet ﷺ said:
«فَهِيَ زَمْزَمُ نِعْمَتِ الْمَاءُ»
“That is Zamzam, an excellent water.”
(Reported in Musnad Ahmad and others with acceptable chains)
The importance of this single well in a dry valley shows how critical water was in Arabian life.
Oases, Valleys, and Routes
Across the deserts and plateaus of Arabia, certain locations stand out as oases, where underground water reaches the surface and supports date palms and cultivation. Famous oases existed in places such as Yathrib (later Madinah), Khaybar, and some parts of the eastern region.
In addition to oases, valleys between mountains and in highlands could collect rainwater and support limited agriculture. These valleys, or wadis, also served as natural pathways for caravans.
Caravan routes connected Yemen in the south with Syria and Iraq in the north. They passed by oases and towns where caravans could rest, trade, and refill their water supplies. Makkah, although not a coastal city and not as fertile as Madinah, sat near such routes, which increased its importance.
Allah hints at the security and provision of Makkah despite its natural limits:
﴿أَوَلَمْ نُمَكِّنْ لَهُمْ حَرَمًا آمِنًا يُجْبَى إِلَيْهِ ثَمَرَاتُ كُلِّ شَيْءٍ رِزْقًا مِنْ لَدُنَّا﴾
“Have We not established for them a secure sanctuary to which are brought fruits of all things as provision from Us?”
(Surah al Qasas 28:57)
Although the valley itself did not grow many crops, goods and fruits from various regions were brought there by trade, made possible by its location on the routes.
Natural Barriers and Protection
The geography of Arabia created natural barriers that, for a long time, limited full conquest by surrounding empires. The northern edges of the peninsula connected to lands ruled by the Byzantines and the Persians, but the deep deserts and lack of water discouraged large foreign armies from advancing far into the interior.
The vast deserts, the rugged mountains in the west and south, and the limited coastal plains all acted as protection. Travel required knowledge of wells, seasons, and terrain. The people who lived there were adapted to this environment, but outsiders found it difficult.
This relative isolation allowed the Arabic language and tribal culture to develop with less interference from large imperial powers. When the final revelation came, it came in this pure Arabic tongue.
Allah says:
﴿إِنَّا أَنزَلْنَاهُ قُرْآنًا عَرَبِيًّا لَّعَلَّكُمْ تَعْقِلُونَ﴾
“Indeed, We have sent it down as an Arabic Qur’an that you might understand.”
(Surah Yusuf 12:2)
The preservation of Arabic as a strong and expressive language was connected to the environment and the relative separation of the peninsula.
How Geography Shaped the People
The land of Arabia, with its deserts, mountains, and limited water, shaped the people’s character. Harsh conditions encouraged traits like generosity, since refusing water or shelter could mean death for travelers. At the same time, competition over wells and pastures led to strong tribal loyalties and conflicts.
The need for travel in search of livelihood acquainted many Arabs with surrounding lands and peoples. Merchants from Makkah and other towns traveled to Syria, Yemen, and sometimes beyond. They saw other religions, cultures, and systems. Yet their own land remained free of direct rule by those greater powers.
This geographic reality helped create a society that was at once connected and independent. It was tough and proud, yet it maintained certain noble qualities. Into this environment, Allah chose to send His final Messenger ﷺ.
A Land Chosen for the Final Message
When we look at the geography of the Arabian Peninsula, we can see wisdom in its selection as the birthplace of the last Prophet ﷺ. It stood at a crossing of major trade routes between continents, yet its harsh environment preserved the purity of its language and prevented total domination by outside empires.
Its western region, the Hejaz, contained both a barren sacred valley at Makkah and a more fertile oasis region at Madinah. The Prophet ﷺ spent his early life in Makkah, a city of pilgrimage and trade, then later migrated to Madinah, a city suited for building a community and state.
Allah refers to this region in the oath:
﴿لَا أُقْسِمُ بِهَذَا الْبَلَدِ﴾
“I swear by this city.”
(Surah al Balad 90:1)
And He says about the surroundings:
﴿وَهَٰذَا الْبَلَدِ الْأَمِينِ﴾
“And by this secure city.”
(Surah at Tin 95:3)
The “secure city” is Makkah. Its security, its position, and its connection to the rest of Arabia and the wider world all relate to the geography we have described.
By understanding this land, we are better prepared to understand the events that took place upon it. The valleys, mountains, deserts, and routes of the Arabian Peninsula are not just background scenery. They are part of the story of how Allah prepared the world for the coming of Muhammad ﷺ and the final revelation.