2.1.5.2 Jews

Presence of Jews in Arabia Before Islam

When Islam began in the seventh century, several established Jewish communities were already living in different parts of the Arabian Peninsula. To understand the Seerah, it is important to know who these communities were, where they lived, and what role they played in the social and religious landscape of Arabia. This chapter focuses only on the Jews in Arabia before Islam, not on later treaties or events in Madinah, which will be covered in later chapters.

Origins and Settlement in Arabia

Jewish tribes had settled in Arabia centuries before the birth of the Prophet ﷺ. Historical reports and early Muslim historians mention several possible reasons for their arrival. Some came as traders and chose to settle in fertile regions. Others arrived as refugees after conflicts and exiles from the lands of Ash-Sham and Palestine, especially after the destruction of earlier Jewish kingdoms there. Some traditions also suggest that a number of them migrated in expectation of a coming prophet in the land of the Arabs.

Although exact dates are debated, the presence of Jews in Arabia was not recent. By the time of the Prophet’s birth, they were already rooted communities, with land, agriculture, and alliances.

Among the most important centers of Jewish life in Arabia was Yathrib, later known as Madinah. There were also Jewish communities in Khaybar, Fadak, Tayma, Wadi al-Qura, and other northern regions, as well as some presence in southern Arabia, such as the famous case of the Jewish king in Yemen in later pre-Islamic times.

Major Jewish Tribes in the Hijaz

In the Hijaz region, where Makkah and Madinah are located, several prominent Jewish tribes lived among, and sometimes alongside, Arab tribes. They were not a single unified political entity, but rather distinct tribes with their own alliances and rivalries.

In Yathrib itself there were three well known Jewish tribes:

Banu Qaynuqa lived mainly within the city and worked as artisans and traders, particularly in crafts such as goldsmithing and metalwork. Banu Nadir and Banu Qurayzah lived mostly in fortresses and strongholds around the oasis, farming date palms and managing agricultural lands. Khaybar, to the north of Yathrib, was another major Jewish settlement, famous for its fortresses, rich agricultural land, and palm groves. Fadak and Wadi al-Qura also had significant Jewish populations. These northern communities controlled valuable resources and trade routes and were known for their strength and organized settlements.

This network of Jewish communities around Yathrib and in the northern Hijaz meant that Jews were an important part of the religious and political map of western Arabia before Islam.

Language, Culture, and Integration

The Jews of Arabia spoke different languages, including forms of Hebrew or Aramaic, but over time many of them also spoke fluent Arabic, especially in the Hijaz. Their names, poetry, and daily interactions often resembled those of their Arab neighbors. They adopted many aspects of Arab culture, such as tribal structures and alliances, while still preserving their religious identity.

They were often known as ahl al-kitab, the People of the Scripture, since they had a revealed book and a long recognized religious tradition. Arabs around them were familiar with this distinct status. Although Jewish law and beliefs set them apart, in everyday life they participated in many of the social norms of tribal Arabia, such as solidarity with allies and involvement in local disputes.

At the same time, they maintained internal communal life based on their own religious leadership, rabbis, and scholars. In some regions, their knowledge of writing and scripture gave them a special prestige in comparison with largely illiterate Arab tribes.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

Jews in Arabia followed the religion of Musa عليه السلام and the later prophets of Bani Isra’il. They affirmed belief in one God and had knowledge of divine revelation, halal and haram, and religious law. Their distinct religious identity stood in contrast to the widespread idolatry of many Arab tribes.

The Qur’an refers to the revelation that came to them:

إِنَّا أَنزَلْنَا التَّوْرَاةَ فِيهَا هُدًى وَنُورٌ
“Indeed, We sent down the Torah, in which was guidance and light.”
(Surah al-Ma’idah 5:44)

They believed in the Torah and other scriptures and had religious rulings related to food, purity, marriage, and worship. They practiced circumcision, maintained dietary laws such as avoiding certain foods, and observed distinct religious days and rituals. Some forms of prayer, fasting, and synagogue gatherings were part of their communal life.

The Qur’an also mentions that among them were sincere worshippers and scholars, and also those who deviated from the original message:

وَمِنْ قَوْمِ مُوسَىٰ أُمَّةٌ يَهْدُونَ بِالْحَقِّ وَبِهِ يَعْدِلُونَ
“And among the people of Musa is a community which guides by truth and by it establishes justice.”
(Surah al-A‘raf 7:159)

This indicates that even before Islam, some among them upheld justice and truth, while others were criticized for altering or concealing parts of their scripture, a discussion that belongs to later Medinan chapters where the Qur’an addresses them directly.

Social and Economic Roles

The Jewish tribes played a significant role in the economy of several Arabian towns. In Yathrib and Khaybar especially, they were prominent landowners and farmers. Date palms, fields, and orchards formed the basis of their wealth. They also engaged in trade, crafts, and in some cases, money lending.

Their economic strength allowed them to influence local politics and to enter into alliances with Arab tribes. For example, in Yathrib, Jewish tribes formed military and political alliances with different Arab tribes of Aws and Khazraj. The balance of power in the city often depended on these shifting alliances, which formed part of the backdrop to the situation the Prophet ﷺ encountered on his arrival in Madinah.

At times, this economic position also led to tensions and rivalries, particularly when debts, land disputes, or questions of honor were involved. Nonetheless, they were recognized as an integral part of the social fabric.

Jewish Expectations of a Coming Prophet

An important aspect of the Jewish presence in Arabia, which is directly connected to the Seerah, is their knowledge of earlier revealed scriptures and their expectations concerning a future prophet.

The Qur’an speaks of the People of the Book recognizing the final messenger in their scriptures:

الَّذِينَ يَتَّبِعُونَ الرَّسُولَ النَّبِيَّ الأُمِّيَّ الَّذِي يَجِدُونَهُ مَكْتُوبًا عِندَهُمْ فِي التَّوْرَاةِ وَالإِنْجِيلِ
“Those who follow the Messenger, the unlettered Prophet, whom they find written (mentioned) in what they have of the Torah and the Gospel.”
(Surah al-A‘raf 7:157)

This verse indicates that descriptions of the coming Prophet were known in their scriptures. Early Muslim historians report that some Jews in Yathrib used to speak about a prophet who would appear, and they sometimes frightened the Arab tribes by saying that when this prophet came they would follow him and defeat their enemies.

The Qur’an describes that they knew the Prophet ﷺ with clarity, yet many still rejected him:

الَّذِينَ آتَيْنَاهُمُ الْكِتَابَ يَعْرِفُونَهُ كَمَا يَعْرِفُونَ أَبْنَاءَهُمْ
“Those to whom We gave the Scripture recognize him as they recognize their own sons.”
(Surah al-Baqarah 2:146)

These expectations created a particular atmosphere in Yathrib. Many of its inhabitants were already familiar with the idea that revelation and prophets were real parts of history. The Jewish presence, therefore, prepared the ground for conversations about revelation, law, resurrection, and accountability, even before Islam arrived.

Relations with Pagan Arabs in Belief and Debate

In contrast to their pagan Arab neighbors, Jews upheld the concept of one God. They rejected idol worship and had a long tradition of religious law. This difference created both respect and tension in their relations with the surrounding tribes.

On one hand, some Arabs looked at the People of the Book as more “learned” in matters of religion because they possessed a scripture. The Qur’an points to this perception when it notes that the disbelieving Quraysh sometimes turned to the People of the Book to question and test the Prophet ﷺ, which will be discussed later in the Medinan period.

On the other hand, Jewish communities also engaged in argument and debate with their Arab neighbors. The Qur’an summarizes common disputes and claims made by Jews and others, although most of these debates took place after the Prophet ﷺ began to preach, and thus belong to later chapters. Before Islam, these communities already saw themselves as distinct from idolatrous Arabs, which added another layer to the complex religious scene of Arabia.

Intellectual and Scriptural Influence

Because they had a long scriptural tradition, the Jews in Arabia preserved stories of earlier prophets such as Nuh, Ibrahim, Musa, Dawud, and Sulayman عليهم السلام. They transmitted narratives about creation, sin, punishment, and salvation, although often in forms that had changed over time.

Although the majority of pagan Arabs were unfamiliar with detailed scriptural history, some stories of the Israelites and earlier prophets reached them through contact and trade. This made certain ideas, such as divine punishment for past nations, not entirely foreign concepts. The Qur’an itself frequently recalls the stories of Bani Isra’il and their prophets:

يَا بَنِي إِسْرَائِيلَ اذْكُرُوا نِعْمَتِيَ الَّتِي أَنْعَمْتُ عَلَيْكُمْ
“O Children of Israel, remember My favor which I have bestowed upon you.”
(Surah al-Baqarah 2:40)

By the time the Qur’an began to be revealed, references to Bani Isra’il and the Torah linked the new message of Islam with a long chain of revelation which the Jews of Arabia claimed to know and preserve.

Diversity Among Jewish Communities

The Jewish communities in Arabia were not uniform. They differed in political alliances, levels of religious commitment, and responses to the moral environment around them. Some were more closely integrated into Arab tribal life, adopting local customs, while others tried to preserve stricter boundaries based on their law.

The Qur’an acknowledges this variety when it says:

لَيْسُوا سَوَاءً
“They are not all the same.”
(Surah Al ‘Imran 3:113)

Then it praises a group among the People of the Book:

مِنْ أَهْلِ الْكِتَابِ أُمَّةٌ قَائِمَةٌ يَتْلُونَ آيَاتِ اللَّهِ آنَاءَ اللَّيْلِ وَهُمْ يَسْجُدُونَ
“Among the People of the Book is a community standing [in obedience], reciting the verses of Allah during periods of the night and prostrating.”
(Surah Al ‘Imran 3:113)

Although this verse mainly addresses the time of revelation, it shows that not all Jews were the same in belief, practice, or reaction to truth. The pre-Islamic Jewish presence in Arabia must therefore be seen as varied rather than monolithic.

Their Place in the Pre-Islamic Religious Landscape

In the broad religious picture of Arabia before Islam, the Jews occupied a distinct and important position. While most Arabs practiced idolatry, the Jews were among those who preserved belief in one God and maintained a revealed law. They were grouped with Christians as People of the Book, although their beliefs diverged significantly from Christian teachings.

Their existence in Arabia meant that key concepts such as prophethood, revelation, divine law, and an afterlife were living ideas, not distant theories. For the Seerah, this is significant, because it shaped both the expectations and the reactions when the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ finally appeared and began to preach.

In summary, the Jews in Arabia before Islam were established tribes with land, wealth, scripture, and a distinct religious identity. They contributed to the intellectual and social environment into which Islam was revealed. How they later interacted with the Prophet ﷺ, and the specific events that took place with Jewish tribes in Madinah and its surroundings, will be examined in detail in later chapters that focus on the Medinan period.