1.2.1. Scalars and Vectors
Table of Contents
What This Chapter Is About
In physics, many quantities can be described by a single number, but many others need more than that. This leads to one of the most important distinctions in all of physics, the difference between scalars and vectors.
A scalar is a physical quantity that is fully described by magnitude only. A vector is a physical quantity that requires both magnitude and direction.
If someone says that the temperature of a room is $25^\circ \mathrm{C}$, that is enough information. Temperature is a scalar. If someone says that a car is moving at $20 \, \mathrm{m/s}$, that is not complete unless we also know the direction. Velocity is a vector.
A scalar has magnitude only.
A vector has magnitude and direction.
Scalars in Physics
Scalars are the simpler of the two kinds of quantities. They are written as ordinary numbers with units, and they do not point anywhere in space.
Common examples of scalar quantities include mass, time, temperature, energy, distance, speed, volume, and electric charge.
If a box has mass $5 \, \mathrm{kg}$, nothing more is needed. If an event lasts $3 \, \mathrm{s}$, that is complete information. These quantities do not depend on direction.
Scalars can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the quantity. For example, temperature on some scales can be negative, and electric charge can be positive or negative. But even when a scalar has a sign, it still does not have a spatial direction.
Vectors in Physics
Vectors describe quantities for which direction matters. A vector tells us not only how much, but also where or in what direction.
Common examples of vector quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum, and electric field.
Suppose a person walks $4 \, \mathrm{m}$ east. This is not just a length, it includes a direction. So it is a vector quantity, specifically a displacement. If a force of $10 \, \mathrm{N}$ acts upward on an object, that is also a vector.
Two vectors can have the same magnitude but still be different if they point in different directions. For example, $5 \, \mathrm{m}$ north and $5 \, \mathrm{m}$ south have the same size, but they are opposite vectors.
Magnitude of a Vector
The magnitude of a vector is its size or length. It is a scalar.
If a vector is written as $\vec{A}$, its magnitude is often written as $|\vec{A}|$ or simply $A$ when the meaning is clear.
For example, if a force vector has magnitude $12 \, \mathrm{N}$, this means the strength of the force is $12 \, \mathrm{N}$, regardless of its direction.
The magnitude of a vector is always a scalar.
A vector is not the same as its magnitude.
How Scalars and Vectors Differ
The key difference is whether direction is needed to fully describe the quantity. This affects how the quantities behave in calculations and in physical interpretation.
| Quantity | Scalar or Vector | Why |
|---|---|---|
| Mass | Scalar | Only amount matters |
| Time | Scalar | No direction |
| Temperature | Scalar | No direction |
| Speed | Scalar | Only how fast |
| Distance | Scalar | Total path length only |
| Displacement | Vector | Includes change in position and direction |
| Velocity | Vector | Speed with direction |
| Acceleration | Vector | Rate of change of velocity, includes direction |
| Force | Vector | Push or pull in a direction |
Speed and Velocity, A Useful Comparison
Beginners often confuse speed and velocity. They are related, but not the same.
Speed is a scalar. It tells how fast something moves.
Velocity is a vector. It tells how fast something moves and in what direction.
A car moving at $60 \, \mathrm{km/h}$ has a speed of $60 \, \mathrm{km/h}$. If we say it is moving at $60 \, \mathrm{km/h}$ north, then we are describing its velocity.
This same kind of distinction appears elsewhere in physics. Distance is scalar, displacement is vector. Magnitude alone is not always enough.
Equal Vectors
Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and the same direction. Their positions in a drawing do not matter, as long as their lengths and directions match.
This means a vector can be moved parallel to itself without changing what vector it represents, in many physics contexts.
Rendering scientific sketch…
In this drawing, $\vec{A}$ and $\vec{B}$ are equal if they have the same length and point in the same direction.
Opposite Vectors
Two vectors are opposite if they have the same magnitude but opposite directions. If $\vec{A}$ points right, then $-\vec{A}$ points left with the same length.
Rendering scientific sketch…
This idea is very important in motion and force. For example, motion to the east and motion to the west are opposite directions.
Scalars and Vectors in Everyday Physics
Scalars and vectors appear constantly in basic physics situations. If you heat water, you track scalar quantities like temperature and energy. If you push a cart, you must consider vector quantities like force and acceleration.
Imagine two students pulling a box. If one pulls east and the other pulls west, the directions matter. This is why force must be treated as a vector. But if we ask only for the mass of the box, direction is irrelevant, so mass is a scalar.
Why This Distinction Matters
The scalar or vector nature of a quantity changes how we think about it and how we calculate with it. Direction can change the result completely.
For example, two forces of equal magnitude can combine to produce very different outcomes depending on their directions. Two speeds do not combine this way, because speed is scalar. In physics, knowing whether a quantity is scalar or vector is the first step in using it correctly.
Before solving a physics problem, identify whether each quantity is a scalar or a vector.
If direction matters, treat it as a vector.
A First Visual Intuition
A scalar can be imagined as a number on its own. A vector can be imagined as an arrow. The length of the arrow shows magnitude, and the way it points shows direction.
Rendering scientific sketch…
This simple picture is often enough to remember the main idea. Scalars tell how much. Vectors tell how much and where.
Final Idea
Scalars and vectors are two basic languages of physics. Scalars describe quantities with magnitude only. Vectors describe quantities with magnitude and direction. Many of the most important ideas in mechanics, electricity, and other areas depend on recognizing this difference clearly from the start.
Important summary:
Scalar, magnitude only.
Vector, magnitude plus direction.
Examples of scalars, mass, time, temperature, energy, speed.
Examples of vectors, displacement, velocity, acceleration, force.
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- ☰ 1. Mathematical Foundations of Physics
- ☰ 1.1. Physical Quantities and Units
- ☰ 1.1.1. Physical Quantities
- ☰ 1.1.2. SI Base Units
- ☰ 1.1.3. Derived Units
- ☰ 1.1.4. Unit Conversions
- ☰ 1.1.5. Scientific Notation
- ☰ 1.1.6. Orders of Magnitude
- ☰ 1.1.7. Dimensional Analysis
- ☰ 1.1.8. Significant Figures
- ☰ 1.1.9. Measurement Uncertainty
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- ☰ 1.2. Scalars and Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.1. Scalars and Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.2. Vector Notation
- ☰ 1.2.3. Vector Addition and Subtraction
- ☰ 1.2.4. Vector Components
- ☰ 1.2.5. Unit Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.6. Dot Product
- ☰ 1.2.7. Cross Product
- ☰ 1.2.8. Applications of Vectors in Physics
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- ☰ 1.3. Coordinate Systems
- ☰ 1.3.1. Cartesian Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.2. Polar Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.3. Cylindrical Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.4. Spherical Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.5. Coordinate Transformations
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- ☰ 1.4. Calculus for Physics
- ☰ 1.4.1. Functions and Graphs
- ☰ 1.4.2. Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.3. Physical Meaning of Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.4. Partial Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.5. Integrals
- ☰ 1.4.6. Physical Meaning of Integrals
- ☰ 1.4.7. Differential Equations
- ☰ 1.4.8. Taylor Series and Approximations
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- ☰ 2. Part I: Classical Mechanics
- ☰ 2.1. Kinematics
- ☰ 2.1.1. Motion in One Dimension
- ☰ 2.1.1.1. Position
- ☰ 2.1.1.2. Distance and Displacement
- ☰ 2.1.1.3. Speed and Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.4. Average Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.5. Instantaneous Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.6. Acceleration
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- ☰ 2.1.2. Motion with Constant Acceleration
- ☰ 2.1.2.1. Kinematic Equations
- ☰ 2.1.2.2. Free Fall
- ☰ 2.1.2.3. Vertical Motion
- ☰ 2.1.2.4. Position-Time Graphs
- ☰ 2.1.2.5. Velocity-Time Graphs
- ☰ 2.1.2.6. Acceleration-Time Graphs
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- ☰ 2.1.3. Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
- ☰ 2.1.3.1. Position Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.2. Velocity Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.3. Acceleration Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.4. Relative Motion
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- ☰ 2.1.4. Projectile Motion
- ☰ 2.1.4.1. Horizontal Projection
- ☰ 2.1.4.2. Oblique Projection
- ☰ 2.1.4.3. Maximum Height
- ☰ 2.1.4.4. Time of Flight
- ☰ 2.1.4.5. Projectile Range
- ☰ 2.1.4.6. Trajectory Equation
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- ☰ 2.1.5. Circular Motion
- ☰ 2.1.5.1. Angular Position
- ☰ 2.1.5.2. Angular Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.5.3. Angular Acceleration
- ☰ 2.1.5.4. Uniform Circular Motion
- ☰ 2.1.5.5. Centripetal Acceleration
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- ☰ 2.2. Newton's Laws of Motion
- ☰ 2.2.1. Force
- ☰ 2.2.1.1. Concept of Force
- ☰ 2.2.1.2. Fundamental Forces
- ☰ 2.2.1.3. Contact Forces
- ☰ 2.2.1.4. Free-Body Diagrams
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- ☰ 2.2.2. Newton's First Law
- ☰ 2.2.2.1. Inertia
- ☰ 2.2.2.2. Inertial Reference Frames
- ☰ 2.2.2.3. Equilibrium
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- ☰ 2.2.3. Newton's Second Law
- ☰ 2.2.3.1. Force, Mass, and Acceleration
- ☰ 2.2.3.2. Net Force
- ☰ 2.2.3.3. Applications of F = ma
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- ☰ 2.2.4. Newton's Third Law
- ☰ 2.2.4.1. Action-Reaction Pairs
- ☰ 2.2.4.2. Interaction Forces
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- ☰ 2.2.5. Common Forces
- ☰ 2.2.5.1. Weight
- ☰ 2.2.5.2. Normal Force
- ☰ 2.2.5.3. Tension
- ☰ 2.2.5.4. Spring Force
- ☰ 2.2.5.5. Static Friction
- ☰ 2.2.5.6. Kinetic Friction
- ☰ 2.2.5.7. Drag Force
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- ☰ 2.2.6. Applications of Newton's Laws
- ☰ 2.2.6.1. Connected Objects
- ☰ 2.2.6.2. Pulley Systems
- ☰ 2.2.6.3. Inclined Planes
- ☰ 2.2.6.4. Elevators
- ☰ 2.2.6.5. Circular Motion
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- ☰ 2.3. Work and Energy
- ☰ 2.3.1. Work
- ☰ 2.3.1.1. Work Done by a Constant Force
- ☰ 2.3.1.2. Work Done by a Variable Force
- ☰ 2.3.1.3. Work from Force-Position Graphs
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- ☰ 2.3.2. Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.3.2.1. Translational Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.3.2.2. Work-Energy Theorem
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- ☰ 2.3.3. Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.1. Gravitational Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.2. Elastic Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.3. Potential-Energy Curves
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- ☰ 2.3.4. Conservation of Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.1. Mechanical Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.2. Conservative Forces
- ☰ 2.3.4.3. Non-Conservative Forces
- ☰ 2.3.4.4. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.5. Energy Dissipation
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- ☰ 2.3.5. Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.1. Average Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.2. Instantaneous Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.3. Efficiency
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- ☰ 2.4. Momentum and Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.1. Linear Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.1.1. Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.1.2. Momentum and Force
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- ☰ 2.4.2. Impulse
- ☰ 2.4.2.1. Impulse
- ☰ 2.4.2.2. Impulse-Momentum Theorem
- ☰ 2.4.2.3. Force-Time Graphs
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- ☰ 2.4.3. Conservation of Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.3.1. Isolated Systems
- ☰ 2.4.3.2. Center-of-Mass Motion
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- ☰ 2.4.4. Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.1. Elastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.2. Inelastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.3. Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.4. One-Dimensional Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.5. Two-Dimensional Collisions
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- ☰ 2.4.5. Center of Mass
- ☰ 2.4.5.1. Center of Mass of Particles
- ☰ 2.4.5.2. Center of Mass of Continuous Objects
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- ☰ 2.4.6. Rocket Motion
- ☰ 2.4.6.1. Variable-Mass Systems
- ☰ 2.4.6.2. Rocket Equation
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- ☰ 2.5. Rotational Motion
- ☰ 2.5.1. Rotational Kinematics
- ☰ 2.5.1.1. Angular Displacement
- ☰ 2.5.1.2. Angular Velocity
- ☰ 2.5.1.3. Angular Acceleration
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- ☰ 2.5.2. Torque
- ☰ 2.5.2.1. Torque
- ☰ 2.5.2.2. Lever Arm
- ☰ 2.5.2.3. Vector Definition of Torque
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- ☰ 2.5.3. Moment of Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.1. Rotational Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.2. Common Moments of Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.3. Parallel-Axis Theorem
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- ☰ 2.5.4. Rotational Dynamics
- ☰ 2.5.4.1. Newton's Second Law for Rotation
- ☰ 2.5.4.2. Rotational Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.5.4.3. Work and Power in Rotation
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- ☰ 2.5.5. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 2.5.5.1. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 2.5.5.2. Conservation of Angular Momentum
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- ☰ 2.5.6. Rolling Motion
- ☰ 2.5.6.1. Rolling Without Slipping
- ☰ 2.5.6.2. Translational and Rotational Energy
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- ☰ 2.5.7. Static Equilibrium
- ☰ 2.5.7.1. Conditions for Equilibrium
- ☰ 2.5.7.2. Center of Gravity
- ☰ 2.5.7.3. Stability
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- ☰ 2.6. Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1. Newton's Law of Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1.1. Universal Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1.2. Gravitational Constant
- ☰ 2.6.1.3. Superposition
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- ☰ 2.6.2. Gravitational Field
- ☰ 2.6.2.1. Gravitational Field Strength
- ☰ 2.6.2.2. Field of Spherical Bodies
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- ☰ 2.6.3. Gravitational Potential
- ☰ 2.6.3.1. Gravitational Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.6.3.2. Gravitational Potential
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- ☰ 2.6.4. Planetary Motion
- ☰ 2.6.4.1. Kepler's Laws
- ☰ 2.6.4.2. Circular Orbits
- ☰ 2.6.4.3. Orbital Velocity
- ☰ 2.6.4.4. Orbital Period
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- ☰ 2.6.5. Satellites and Spaceflight
- ☰ 2.6.5.1. Geostationary Satellites
- ☰ 2.6.5.2. Escape Velocity
- ☰ 2.6.5.3. Orbital Energy
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- ☰ 3. Part II: Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids
- ☰ 3.1. Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.1. Simple Harmonic Motion
- ☰ 3.1.1.1. Periodic Motion
- ☰ 3.1.1.2. Amplitude
- ☰ 3.1.1.3. Frequency and Period
- ☰ 3.1.1.4. Angular Frequency
- ☰ 3.1.1.5. SHM Equation
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- ☰ 3.1.2. Mass-Spring Systems
- ☰ 3.1.2.1. Hooke's Law
- ☰ 3.1.2.2. Spring Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.2.3. Energy in SHM
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- ☰ 3.1.3. Pendulums
- ☰ 3.1.3.1. Simple Pendulum
- ☰ 3.1.3.2. Physical Pendulum
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- ☰ 3.1.4. Damped Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.4.1. Damping
- ☰ 3.1.4.2. Critical Damping
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- ☰ 3.1.5. Forced Oscillations and Resonance
- ☰ 3.1.5.1. Driving Force
- ☰ 3.1.5.2. Resonance
- ☰ 3.1.5.3. Natural Frequency
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- ☰ 3.2. Mechanical Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1. Fundamentals of Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.1. Transverse Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.2. Longitudinal Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.3. Wavelength
- ☰ 3.2.1.4. Frequency
- ☰ 3.2.1.5. Wave Speed
- ☰ 3.2.1.6. Amplitude
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- ☰ 3.2.2. Mathematical Description of Waves
- ☰ 3.2.2.1. Wave Function
- ☰ 3.2.2.2. Phase
- ☰ 3.2.2.3. Wave Equation
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- ☰ 3.2.3. Superposition
- ☰ 3.2.3.1. Interference
- ☰ 3.2.3.2. Constructive Interference
- ☰ 3.2.3.3. Destructive Interference
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- ☰ 3.2.4. Standing Waves
- ☰ 3.2.4.1. Nodes and Antinodes
- ☰ 3.2.4.2. Strings
- ☰ 3.2.4.3. Pipes
- ☰ 3.2.4.4. Harmonics
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- ☰ 3.2.5. Sound Waves
- ☰ 3.2.5.1. Speed of Sound
- ☰ 3.2.5.2. Sound Intensity
- ☰ 3.2.5.3. Decibels
- ☰ 3.2.5.4. Beats
- ☰ 3.2.5.5. Doppler Effect
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- ☰ 3.3. Fluid Mechanics
- ☰ 3.3.1. Properties of Fluids
- ☰ 3.3.1.1. Density
- ☰ 3.3.1.2. Pressure
- ☰ 3.3.1.3. Compressibility
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- ☰ 3.3.2. Fluid Statics
- ☰ 3.3.2.1. Hydrostatic Pressure
- ☰ 3.3.2.2. Pascal's Principle
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- ☰ 3.3.3. Buoyancy
- ☰ 3.3.3.1. Archimedes' Principle
- ☰ 3.3.3.2. Floating and Sinking
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- ☰ 3.3.4. Fluid Dynamics
- ☰ 3.3.4.1. Flow Rate
- ☰ 3.3.4.2. Continuity Equation
- ☰ 3.3.4.3. Bernoulli's Equation
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- ☰ 3.3.5. Viscosity
- ☰ 3.3.5.1. Laminar Flow
- ☰ 3.3.5.2. Turbulent Flow
- ☰ 3.3.5.3. Poiseuille's Law
- ☰ 3.3.5.4. Reynolds Number
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- ☰ 4. Part III: Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.1. Temperature and Heat
- ☰ 4.1.1. Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
- ☰ 4.1.2. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.1.3. Temperature Scales
- ☰ 4.1.4. Thermal Expansion
- ☰ 4.1.5. Heat and Internal Energy
- ☰ 4.1.6. Specific Heat Capacity
- ☰ 4.1.7. Calorimetry
- ☰ 4.1.8. Phase Changes
- ☰ 4.1.9. Latent Heat
- ☰ 4.1.10. Heat Transfer
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- ☰ 4.2. Kinetic Theory of Gases
- ☰ 4.2.1. Ideal Gas Law
- ☰ 4.2.2. Molecular Interpretation of Pressure
- ☰ 4.2.3. Temperature and Molecular Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 4.2.4. RMS Molecular Speed
- ☰ 4.2.5. Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
- ☰ 4.2.6. Mean Free Path
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- ☰ 4.3. Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.1. Thermodynamic Systems
- ☰ 4.3.2. First Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.3. Isothermal Processes
- ☰ 4.3.4. Isobaric Processes
- ☰ 4.3.5. Isochoric Processes
- ☰ 4.3.6. Adiabatic Processes
- ☰ 4.3.7. Heat Engines
- ☰ 4.3.8. Carnot Cycle
- ☰ 4.3.9. Refrigerators
- ☰ 4.3.10. Second Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.11. Entropy
- ☰ 4.3.12. Reversible and Irreversible Processes
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- ☰ 5. Part IV: Electricity and Magnetism
- ☰ 5.1. Electric Charge and Electric Field
- ☰ 5.1.1. Electric Charge
- ☰ 5.1.2. Conductors and Insulators
- ☰ 5.1.3. Coulomb's Law
- ☰ 5.1.4. Superposition
- ☰ 5.1.5. Electric Field
- ☰ 5.1.6. Electric Field Lines
- ☰ 5.1.7. Electric Dipoles
- ☰ 5.1.8. Electric Flux
- ☰ 5.1.9. Gauss's Law
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- ☰ 5.2. Electric Potential
- ☰ 5.2.1. Electric Potential Energy
- ☰ 5.2.2. Electric Potential
- ☰ 5.2.3. Equipotential Surfaces
- ☰ 5.2.4. Relationship Between Potential and Field
- ☰ 5.2.5. Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
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- ☰ 5.3. Capacitance
- ☰ 5.3.1. Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.2. Parallel-Plate Capacitor
- ☰ 5.3.3. Series and Parallel Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.4. Energy Stored in Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.5. Dielectrics
- ☰ 5.3.6. Polarization
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- ☰ 5.4. Electric Current and Resistance
- ☰ 5.4.1. Electric Current
- ☰ 5.4.2. Current Density
- ☰ 5.4.3. Drift Velocity
- ☰ 5.4.4. Resistance
- ☰ 5.4.5. Ohm's Law
- ☰ 5.4.6. Resistivity
- ☰ 5.4.7. Electrical Energy
- ☰ 5.4.8. Electric Power
- ☰ 5.4.9. Electromotive Force
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- ☰ 5.5. DC Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.1. Kirchhoff's Laws
- ☰ 5.5.2. Multi-Loop Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.3. RC Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.4. Measuring Instruments
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- ☰ 5.6. Magnetism
- ☰ 5.6.1. Magnetic Fields
- ☰ 5.6.2. Lorentz Force
- ☰ 5.6.3. Motion of Charged Particles
- ☰ 5.6.4. Force on Current-Carrying Wires
- ☰ 5.6.5. Torque on Current Loops
- ☰ 5.6.6. Biot-Savart Law
- ☰ 5.6.7. Ampère's Law
- ☰ 5.6.8. Solenoids
- ☰ 5.6.9. Magnetic Materials
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- ☰ 5.7. Electromagnetic Induction
- ☰ 5.7.1. Magnetic Flux
- ☰ 5.7.2. Faraday's Law
- ☰ 5.7.3. Lenz's Law
- ☰ 5.7.4. Motional EMF
- ☰ 5.7.5. Self-Inductance
- ☰ 5.7.6. Mutual Inductance
- ☰ 5.7.7. RL Circuits
- ☰ 5.7.8. LC Oscillations
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- ☰ 5.8. Alternating Current
- ☰ 5.8.1. AC Voltage and Current
- ☰ 5.8.2. RMS Quantities
- ☰ 5.8.3. Resistors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.4. Capacitors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.5. Inductors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.6. RLC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.7. Impedance
- ☰ 5.8.8. Resonance
- ☰ 5.8.9. Transformers
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- ☰ 5.9. Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.1. Gauss's Law for Electricity
- ☰ 5.9.2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism
- ☰ 5.9.3. Faraday's Law
- ☰ 5.9.4. Ampère-Maxwell Law
- ☰ 5.9.5. Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.6. Speed of Light
- ☰ 5.9.7. Electromagnetic Spectrum
- ☰ 5.9.8. Poynting Vector
- ☰ 5.9.9. Radiation Pressure
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- ☰ 6. Part V: Optics
- ☰ 6.1. Geometrical Optics
- ☰ 6.1.1. Nature of Light
- ☰ 6.1.2. Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.3. Plane Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.4. Refraction
- ☰ 6.1.5. Snell's Law
- ☰ 6.1.6. Total Internal Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.7. Spherical Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.8. Thin Lenses
- ☰ 6.1.9. Mirror Equation
- ☰ 6.1.10. Lens Equation
- ☰ 6.1.11. Magnification
- ☰ 6.1.12. Ray Diagrams
- ☰ 6.1.13. Optical Instruments
-
- ☰ 6.2. Wave Optics
- ☰ 6.2.1. Interference
- ☰ 6.2.2. Young's Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 6.2.3. Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.4. Single-Slit Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.5. Diffraction Gratings
- ☰ 6.2.6. Polarization
- ☰ 6.2.7. Malus's Law
- ☰ 6.2.8. Brewster's Angle
- ☰ 6.2.9. Rayleigh Criterion
- ☰ 6.2.10. Optical Resolution
-
-
- ☰ 7. Part VI: Modern Physics
- ☰ 7.1. Special Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.1. Galilean Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.2. Michelson-Morley Experiment
- ☰ 7.1.3. Einstein's Postulates
- ☰ 7.1.4. Lorentz Transformations
- ☰ 7.1.5. Relativity of Simultaneity
- ☰ 7.1.6. Time Dilation
- ☰ 7.1.7. Length Contraction
- ☰ 7.1.8. Relativistic Velocity Addition
- ☰ 7.1.9. Relativistic Momentum
- ☰ 7.1.10. Relativistic Energy
- ☰ 7.1.11. Mass-Energy Equivalence
- ☰ 7.1.12. Energy-Momentum Relation
- ☰ 7.1.13. Spacetime Diagrams
- ☰ 7.1.14. Light Cones
-
- ☰ 7.2. Introduction to Quantum Physics
- ☰ 7.2.1. Blackbody Radiation
- ☰ 7.2.2. Planck's Hypothesis
- ☰ 7.2.3. Photoelectric Effect
- ☰ 7.2.4. Photon Energy
- ☰ 7.2.5. Photon Momentum
- ☰ 7.2.6. Compton Scattering
- ☰ 7.2.7. de Broglie Wavelength
- ☰ 7.2.8. Matter Waves
- ☰ 7.2.9. Wave-Particle Duality
- ☰ 7.2.10. Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 7.2.11. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
-
- ☰ 7.3. Quantum Mechanics
- ☰ 7.3.1. Wave Function
- ☰ 7.3.2. Probability Interpretation
- ☰ 7.3.3. Normalization
- ☰ 7.3.4. Schrödinger Equation
- ☰ 7.3.5. Operators and Observables
- ☰ 7.3.6. Expectation Values
- ☰ 7.3.7. Particle in a Box
- ☰ 7.3.8. Finite Potential Wells
- ☰ 7.3.9. Quantum Tunneling
- ☰ 7.3.10. Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
- ☰ 7.3.11. Hydrogen Atom
- ☰ 7.3.12. Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 7.3.13. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 7.3.14. Spin
- ☰ 7.3.15. Stern-Gerlach Experiment
- ☰ 7.3.16. Pauli Exclusion Principle
-
- ☰ 7.4. Atomic Physics
- ☰ 7.4.1. Thomson Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.2. Rutherford Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.3. Bohr Model
- ☰ 7.4.4. Atomic Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.5. Hydrogen Spectrum
- ☰ 7.4.6. Electron Shells
- ☰ 7.4.7. Orbitals
- ☰ 7.4.8. Electron Configurations
- ☰ 7.4.9. X-Ray Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.10. Atomic Transitions
- ☰ 7.4.11. Lasers
- ☰ 7.4.12. Stimulated Emission
-
-
- ☰ 8. Part VII: Nuclear and Particle Physics
- ☰ 8.1. Nuclear Structure
- ☰ 8.1.1. The Atomic Nucleus
- ☰ 8.1.1.1. Protons and Neutrons
- ☰ 8.1.1.2. Atomic Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.3. Mass Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.4. Isotopes
- ☰ 8.1.1.5. Isotones
- ☰ 8.1.1.6. Isobars
-
- ☰ 8.1.2. Nuclear Size and Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.1. Nuclear Radius
- ☰ 8.1.2.2. Nuclear Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.3. Nuclear Charge Distribution
-
- ☰ 8.1.3. Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.1. Strong Nuclear Force
- ☰ 8.1.3.2. Properties of Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.3. Proton-Neutron Interaction
- ☰ 8.1.3.4. Nuclear Stability
-
- ☰ 8.1.4. Mass and Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.1. Atomic Mass Units
- ☰ 8.1.4.2. Mass Defect
- ☰ 8.1.4.3. Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.4. Binding Energy per Nucleon
- ☰ 8.1.4.5. Binding-Energy Curve
-
- ☰ 8.1.5. Nuclear Models
- ☰ 8.1.5.1. Liquid-Drop Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.2. Semi-Empirical Mass Formula
- ☰ 8.1.5.3. Nuclear Shell Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.4. Magic Numbers
- ☰ 8.1.5.5. Collective Model
-
- ☰ 8.1.6. Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Moments
- ☰ 8.1.6.1. Nuclear Angular Momentum
- ☰ 8.1.6.2. Nuclear Spin
- ☰ 8.1.6.3. Nuclear Magnetic Moment
-
-
- ☰ 8.2. Radioactivity and Nuclear Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1. Radioactive Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.1. Nuclear Instability
- ☰ 8.2.1.2. Random Nature of Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.3. Decay Constant
-
- ☰ 8.2.2. Radioactive Decay Law
- ☰ 8.2.2.1. Exponential Decay
- ☰ 8.2.2.2. Activity
- ☰ 8.2.2.3. Half-Life
- ☰ 8.2.2.4. Mean Lifetime
-
- ☰ 8.2.3. Alpha Decay
- ☰ 8.2.3.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.2.3.2. Energy of Alpha Decay
-
- ☰ 8.2.4. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.1. Beta-Minus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.2. Beta-Plus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.3. Electron Capture
- ☰ 8.2.4.4. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.2.4.5. Energy Spectrum
-
- ☰ 8.2.5. Gamma Decay
- ☰ 8.2.5.1. Nuclear Excited States
- ☰ 8.2.5.2. Gamma-Ray Emission
- ☰ 8.2.5.3. Internal Conversion
-
- ☰ 8.2.6. Decay Chains
- ☰ 8.2.6.1. Parent and Daughter Nuclei
- ☰ 8.2.6.2. Secular Equilibrium
- ☰ 8.2.6.3. Natural Radioactive Series
-
-
- ☰ 8.3. Interaction of Radiation with Matter
- ☰ 8.3.1. Charged Particle Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.3.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.3.1.3. Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.1.4. Stopping Power
- ☰ 8.3.1.5. Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.2. Heavy Charged Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.2. Bragg Curve
- ☰ 8.3.2.3. Bragg Peak
-
- ☰ 8.3.3. Electron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.3.1. Collisional Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.3.2. Bremsstrahlung
- ☰ 8.3.3.3. Electron Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.4. Photon Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.4.1. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.3.4.2. Rayleigh Scattering
-
- ☰ 8.3.5. Attenuation of Radiation
- ☰ 8.3.5.1. Linear Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.2. Mass Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.3. Exponential Attenuation
- ☰ 8.3.5.4. Half-Value Layer
-
- ☰ 8.3.6. Neutron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.6.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.3. Neutron Capture
- ☰ 8.3.6.4. Neutron Moderation
-
-
- ☰ 8.4. Radiation Detection and Measurement
- ☰ 8.4.1. Principles of Radiation Detection
- ☰ 8.4.1.1. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.4.1.2. Detector Efficiency
- ☰ 8.4.1.3. Energy Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.4. Timing Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.5. Dead Time
-
- ☰ 8.4.2. Gas-Filled Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.2.1. Ionization Chambers
- ☰ 8.4.2.2. Proportional Counters
- ☰ 8.4.2.3. Geiger-Müller Counters
-
- ☰ 8.4.3. Scintillation Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.3.1. Scintillation Process
- ☰ 8.4.3.2. Organic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.3. Inorganic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.4. Photomultiplier Tubes
- ☰ 8.4.3.5. Silicon Photomultipliers
-
- ☰ 8.4.4. Semiconductor Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.1. Silicon Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.2. Germanium Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.3. Electron-Hole Pair Creation
-
- ☰ 8.4.5. Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
- ☰ 8.4.5.1. Photopeak
- ☰ 8.4.5.2. Compton Continuum
- ☰ 8.4.5.3. Compton Edge
- ☰ 8.4.5.4. Escape Peaks
-
- ☰ 8.4.6. Coincidence Measurements
- ☰ 8.4.6.1. Coincidence Detection
- ☰ 8.4.6.2. Timing Windows
- ☰ 8.4.6.3. True Coincidences
- ☰ 8.4.6.4. Random Coincidences
-
-
- ☰ 8.5. Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1. Principles of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1.1. Reaction Notation
- ☰ 8.5.1.2. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.5.1.3. Reaction Energetics
-
- ☰ 8.5.2. Q-Value
- ☰ 8.5.2.1. Exothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.2. Endothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.3. Reaction Thresholds
-
- ☰ 8.5.3. Reaction Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.1. Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.2. Reaction Probability
- ☰ 8.5.3.3. Energy Dependence
-
- ☰ 8.5.4. Types of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.3. Capture Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.4. Transfer Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.5. Charge-Exchange Reactions
-
- ☰ 8.5.5. Compound Nucleus
- ☰ 8.5.5.1. Formation
- ☰ 8.5.5.2. Decay Channels
- ☰ 8.5.5.3. Resonances
-
-
- ☰ 8.6. Nuclear Fission and Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.1. Nuclear Fission
- ☰ 8.6.1.1. Fission Process
- ☰ 8.6.1.2. Fission Fragments
- ☰ 8.6.1.3. Energy Release
- ☰ 8.6.1.4. Neutron Production
-
- ☰ 8.6.2. Chain Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.2.1. Criticality
- ☰ 8.6.2.2. Multiplication Factor
- ☰ 8.6.2.3. Critical Mass
-
- ☰ 8.6.3. Nuclear Reactors
- ☰ 8.6.3.1. Reactor Components
- ☰ 8.6.3.2. Fuel
- ☰ 8.6.3.3. Moderator
- ☰ 8.6.3.4. Control Rods
- ☰ 8.6.3.5. Coolant
-
- ☰ 8.6.4. Nuclear Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.4.1. Fusion Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.4.2. Coulomb Barrier
-
- ☰ 8.6.5. Stellar Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.5.1. Proton-Proton Chain
- ☰ 8.6.5.2. CNO Cycle
- ☰ 8.6.5.3. Nucleosynthesis
-
- ☰ 8.6.6. Controlled Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.6.1. Magnetic Confinement
- ☰ 8.6.6.2. Tokamaks
- ☰ 8.6.6.3. Inertial Confinement
-
-
- ☰ 8.7. Particle Physics Foundations
- ☰ 8.7.1. From Atoms to Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.1.1. Discovery of the Electron
- ☰ 8.7.1.2. Discovery of the Nucleus
- ☰ 8.7.1.3. Discovery of the Neutron
- ☰ 8.7.1.4. Discovery of Antimatter
-
- ☰ 8.7.2. Classification of Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.1. Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.2. Composite Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.3. Fermions
- ☰ 8.7.2.4. Bosons
-
- ☰ 8.7.3. Antiparticles
- ☰ 8.7.3.1. Matter and Antimatter
- ☰ 8.7.3.2. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.7.3.3. Annihilation
-
- ☰ 8.7.4. Relativistic Particle Kinematics
- ☰ 8.7.4.1. Four-Momentum
- ☰ 8.7.4.2. Invariant Mass
-
- ☰ 8.7.5. Particle Decays
- ☰ 8.7.5.1. Decay Width
- ☰ 8.7.5.2. Lifetime
- ☰ 8.7.5.3. Branching Ratio
- ☰ 8.7.5.4. Conservation Laws
-
-
- ☰ 8.8. Quarks and Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.8.1.1. Up Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.2. Down Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.3. Strange Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.4. Charm Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.5. Top Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.6. Bottom Quark
-
- ☰ 8.8.2. Quark Properties
- ☰ 8.8.2.1. Mass
- ☰ 8.8.2.2. Flavor
- ☰ 8.8.2.3. Color Charge
-
- ☰ 8.8.3. Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.3.1. Baryons
- ☰ 8.8.3.2. Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.4. Baryon Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.1. Proton Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.2. Neutron Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.3. Other Baryons
-
- ☰ 8.8.5. Meson Structure
- ☰ 8.8.5.1. Pions
- ☰ 8.8.5.2. Kaons
- ☰ 8.8.5.3. Heavy Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.6. Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.1. Color Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.2. Hadronization
- ☰ 8.8.6.3. Jets
-
-
- ☰ 8.9. Leptons and Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.1. Charged Leptons
- ☰ 8.9.1.1. Electron
- ☰ 8.9.1.2. Muon
- ☰ 8.9.1.3. Tau
-
- ☰ 8.9.2. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.2.1. Electron Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.2. Muon Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.3. Tau Neutrino
-
- ☰ 8.9.3. Neutrino Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.1. Weak Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.2. Neutrino Detection
-
- ☰ 8.9.4. Neutrino Oscillations
- ☰ 8.9.4.1. Neutrino Flavor
- ☰ 8.9.4.2. Flavor Oscillation
- ☰ 8.9.4.3. Neutrino Mass
-
-
- ☰ 8.10. Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1. Four Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1.1. Electromagnetism
- ☰ 8.10.1.2. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.1.3. Weak Interaction
-
- ☰ 8.10.2. Exchange Particles
- ☰ 8.10.2.1. Photons
- ☰ 8.10.2.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.2.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.2.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.10.3. Electromagnetic Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.3.1. Photon Exchange
-
- ☰ 8.10.4. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.4.1. Color Charge
- ☰ 8.10.4.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.4.3. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.10.5. Weak Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.5.1. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.10.5.2. W and Z Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.5.3. Flavor-Changing Processes
-
-
- ☰ 8.11. The Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1. Overview of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1.1. Matter Particles
- ☰ 8.11.1.2. Force Carriers
- ☰ 8.11.1.3. Particle Generations
-
- ☰ 8.11.2. Fermions
- ☰ 8.11.2.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.11.2.2. Leptons
-
- ☰ 8.11.3. Gauge Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.1. Photon
- ☰ 8.11.3.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.11.3.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.4. Higgs Field and Higgs Boson
- ☰ 8.11.4.1. Higgs Field
- ☰ 8.11.4.2. Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
- ☰ 8.11.4.3. Particle Masses
- ☰ 8.11.4.4. Higgs Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.5. Standard Model Interactions
- ☰ 8.11.5.1. Electroweak Theory
- ☰ 8.11.5.2. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.11.6. Limitations of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.6.1. Gravity
- ☰ 8.11.6.2. Dark Matter
- ☰ 8.11.6.3. Neutrino Masses
- ☰ 8.11.6.4. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.12. Symmetries and Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1.1. Energy
-
- ☰ 8.12.2. Particle Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 8.12.2.1. Baryon Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.2. Lepton Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.3. Strangeness
- ☰ 8.12.2.4. Charm
- ☰ 8.12.2.5. Isospin
-
- ☰ 8.12.3. Symmetries
- ☰ 8.12.3.1. Charge Conjugation
- ☰ 8.12.3.2. Parity
- ☰ 8.12.3.3. Time Reversal
-
- ☰ 8.12.4. CP Symmetry
- ☰ 8.12.4.1. CP Conservation
- ☰ 8.12.4.2. CP Violation
- ☰ 8.12.4.3. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.13. Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.1. Principles of Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.1. Electric-Field Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.2. Magnetic-Field Steering
-
- ☰ 8.13.2. Linear Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.2.1. LINACs
- ☰ 8.13.2.2. Radio-Frequency Acceleration
-
- ☰ 8.13.3. Cyclotrons
- ☰ 8.13.3.1. Cyclotron Principle
- ☰ 8.13.3.2. Cyclotron Frequency
- ☰ 8.13.3.3. Limitations
-
- ☰ 8.13.4. Synchrotrons
- ☰ 8.13.4.1. Circular Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.4.2. Magnetic Focusing
- ☰ 8.13.4.3. RF Cavities
-
- ☰ 8.13.5. Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.5.1. Fixed-Target Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.2. Collider Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.3. Center-of-Mass Energy
-
- ☰ 8.13.6. Major Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.6.1. Large Hadron Collider
- ☰ 8.13.6.2. Electron-Positron Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.6.3. Heavy-Ion Colliders
-
-
- ☰ 8.14. Particle Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.1. Principles of Particle Detection
- ☰ 8.14.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.14.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.14.1.3. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.14.1.4. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.2. Tracking Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.2.1. Cloud Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.2. Bubble Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.3. Wire Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.4. Silicon Trackers
-
- ☰ 8.14.3. Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.1. Electromagnetic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.2. Hadronic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.3. Shower Development
-
- ☰ 8.14.4. Cherenkov Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.4.1. Cherenkov Radiation
- ☰ 8.14.4.2. Particle Velocity Measurement
-
- ☰ 8.14.5. Time-of-Flight Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.5.1. Timing Measurements
- ☰ 8.14.5.2. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.6. Modern Detector Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.1. Tracking
- ☰ 8.14.6.2. Muon Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.3. Trigger Systems
-
-
-
- ☰ 9. Part VIII: Condensed Matter and Applied Physics
- ☰ 9.1. Solid-State Physics
- ☰ 9.1.1. Crystal Structure
- ☰ 9.1.1.1. Crystal Lattices
- ☰ 9.1.1.2. Unit Cells
- ☰ 9.1.1.3. Bravais Lattices
-
- ☰ 9.1.2. Electronic Properties
- ☰ 9.1.2.1. Energy Bands
- ☰ 9.1.2.2. Conductors
- ☰ 9.1.2.3. Insulators
- ☰ 9.1.2.4. Semiconductors
-
- ☰ 9.1.3. Semiconductor Physics
- ☰ 9.1.3.1. Intrinsic Semiconductors
- ☰ 9.1.3.2. Doping
- ☰ 9.1.3.3. p-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.4. n-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.5. p-n Junctions
-
- ☰ 9.1.4. Superconductivity
- ☰ 9.1.4.1. Zero Resistance
- ☰ 9.1.4.2. Meissner Effect
- ☰ 9.1.4.3. Critical Temperature
-
-
- ☰ 9.2. Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.1. Semiconductor Diodes
- ☰ 9.2.1.1. p-n Junction
- ☰ 9.2.1.2. Diode Characteristics
- ☰ 9.2.1.3. Rectifiers
-
- ☰ 9.2.2. Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.2. Field-Effect Transistors
-
- ☰ 9.2.3. Operational Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.1. Ideal Op-Amp
- ☰ 9.2.3.2. Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.3. Comparators
-
- ☰ 9.2.4. Digital Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.4.1. Binary Numbers
- ☰ 9.2.4.2. Logic Gates
- ☰ 9.2.4.3. Boolean Algebra
- ☰ 9.2.4.4. Basic Digital Circuits
-
-
-
- ☰ 10. Part IX: Astrophysics and Cosmology
- ☰ 10.1. Astrophysics
- ☰ 10.1.1. Measuring the Universe
- ☰ 10.1.1.1. Astronomical Distances
- ☰ 10.1.1.2. Parallax
- ☰ 10.1.1.3. Luminosity
- ☰ 10.1.1.4. Apparent Brightness
-
- ☰ 10.1.2. Stars
- ☰ 10.1.2.1. Stellar Spectra
- ☰ 10.1.2.2. Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
- ☰ 10.1.2.3. Stellar Evolution
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- ☰ 10.1.3. Stellar Remnants
- ☰ 10.1.3.1. White Dwarfs
- ☰ 10.1.3.2. Neutron Stars
- ☰ 10.1.3.3. Black Holes
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- ☰ 10.1.4. Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.1. Structure of Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.2. Milky Way
- ☰ 10.1.4.3. Galaxy Classification
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- ☰ 10.2. Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.1. Expanding Universe
- ☰ 10.2.1.1. Hubble's Law
- ☰ 10.2.1.2. Cosmological Redshift
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- ☰ 10.2.2. Big Bang Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.2.1. Early Universe
- ☰ 10.2.2.2. Cosmic Microwave Background
- ☰ 10.2.2.3. Primordial Nucleosynthesis
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- ☰ 10.2.3. Dark Matter
- ☰ 10.2.3.1. Evidence for Dark Matter
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