6.1.3. Plane Mirrors
Table of Contents
Image formation by a plane mirror
A plane mirror is a flat reflecting surface. Unlike curved mirrors, it does not focus or spread light rays in a special way. Its main effect is to produce an image that appears behind the mirror.
When light from an object reaches the mirror, the rays reflect according to the law of reflection. If the reflected rays enter your eyes, your brain traces them backward in straight lines. Because of this backward tracing, the light seems to come from a point behind the mirror. That apparent source is the image.
The image formed by a plane mirror has several important properties. It is upright, it has the same size as the object, and it is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front of it. The image is also virtual, which means light does not actually pass through the image point behind the mirror.
For a plane mirror, the image distance equals the object distance in magnitude:
$$d_i = d_o$$
when measured perpendicularly from the mirror surface on opposite sides.
The image is virtual, upright, and the same size as the object.
Virtual image
To understand a virtual image, imagine standing in front of a mirror. Light leaves your face, strikes the mirror, and reflects into your eyes. The reflected rays are real rays, but they diverge after reflection. Your brain extends those rays backward and concludes that they came from behind the mirror.
This is why you can see an image in a mirror, but you cannot project that image onto a screen placed behind the mirror. There is no actual concentration of light there.
Rendering scientific sketch…
Geometry of image location
The position of the image can be found with simple geometry. Take a point on the object. Draw several rays from that point to the mirror. After reflection, those rays obey the law of reflection. If you extend the reflected rays backward, they intersect at one point behind the mirror. That point is the image of the object point.
Since this works for every point on the object, the whole object forms a complete image behind the mirror.
If the object moves closer to the mirror, the image also moves closer by the same amount. If the object moves farther away, the image moves farther away by the same amount.
Size and orientation
A plane mirror produces an image with magnification equal to 1. That means the image height is equal to the object height.
If $h_i$ is the image height and $h_o$ is the object height, then
$$m = \frac{h_i}{h_o} = 1$$
This positive value means the image is upright relative to the object.
For a plane mirror,
$$m = 1, \qquad h_i = h_o$$
The image is upright, not inverted.
Lateral inversion
Although the image is upright, a plane mirror causes lateral inversion. This means left and right appear reversed. For example, text written normally appears backward in a mirror.
It is important to understand that the mirror does not truly swap left and right as a physical rotation would. Instead, the front to back direction is reversed by reflection, and this creates the familiar left-right reversal in appearance.
Rendering scientific sketch…
Object and image distances
Distances for plane mirrors are measured along a line perpendicular to the mirror surface. If a candle is $2 \, \text{m}$ in front of the mirror, its image appears $2 \, \text{m}$ behind the mirror. The total apparent distance between the candle and its image is then $4 \, \text{m}$.
This simple result is often useful in problems involving people, mirrors, and apparent separations.
| Quantity | Plane mirror result |
|---|---|
| Image type | Virtual |
| Orientation | Upright |
| Size | Same as object |
| Image distance | Equal to object distance |
| Magnification | $1$ |
Seeing yourself in a mirror
A common question is why you can see your whole body in a mirror that is only half your height. The reason is geometric. Rays from the top of your head and from your feet reflect from different points on the mirror into your eyes. The required mirror length is only half your height, provided the mirror is positioned correctly.
This result does not depend on how far you stand from the mirror. Standing farther away changes where the rays hit the mirror, but not the minimum required mirror height.
Rendering scientific sketch…
Practical examples
Plane mirrors are used in bathrooms, dressing rooms, periscopes, and many optical instruments. In all these cases, the important idea is that the mirror redirects light while preserving the apparent size and upright orientation of the image.
Two plane mirrors can also create multiple images if arranged at an angle, but the detailed behavior of multiple reflections belongs to more advanced situations. For a single plane mirror, the essential rule is always the same, the image appears symmetrically behind the mirror.
Key facts for a single plane mirror:
$$d_i = d_o$$
$$h_i = h_o$$
$$m = 1$$
The image is virtual, upright, and laterally inverted.
Summary
A plane mirror forms a virtual image behind the mirror because reflected rays are traced backward by the eye. The image is upright, the same size as the object, and located the same perpendicular distance behind the mirror as the object is in front. This makes plane mirrors the simplest and most direct example of image formation in geometrical optics.
Views: 0
Where to Move
Move chapter:
- ☰ 1. Mathematical Foundations of Physics
- ☰ 1.1. Physical Quantities and Units
- ☰ 1.1.1. Physical Quantities
- ☰ 1.1.2. SI Base Units
- ☰ 1.1.3. Derived Units
- ☰ 1.1.4. Unit Conversions
- ☰ 1.1.5. Scientific Notation
- ☰ 1.1.6. Orders of Magnitude
- ☰ 1.1.7. Dimensional Analysis
- ☰ 1.1.8. Significant Figures
- ☰ 1.1.9. Measurement Uncertainty
-
- ☰ 1.2. Scalars and Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.1. Scalars and Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.2. Vector Notation
- ☰ 1.2.3. Vector Addition and Subtraction
- ☰ 1.2.4. Vector Components
- ☰ 1.2.5. Unit Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.6. Dot Product
- ☰ 1.2.7. Cross Product
- ☰ 1.2.8. Applications of Vectors in Physics
-
- ☰ 1.3. Coordinate Systems
- ☰ 1.3.1. Cartesian Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.2. Polar Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.3. Cylindrical Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.4. Spherical Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.5. Coordinate Transformations
-
- ☰ 1.4. Calculus for Physics
- ☰ 1.4.1. Functions and Graphs
- ☰ 1.4.2. Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.3. Physical Meaning of Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.4. Partial Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.5. Integrals
- ☰ 1.4.6. Physical Meaning of Integrals
- ☰ 1.4.7. Differential Equations
- ☰ 1.4.8. Taylor Series and Approximations
-
-
- ☰ 2. Part I: Classical Mechanics
- ☰ 2.1. Kinematics
- ☰ 2.1.1. Motion in One Dimension
- ☰ 2.1.1.1. Position
- ☰ 2.1.1.2. Distance and Displacement
- ☰ 2.1.1.3. Speed and Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.4. Average Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.5. Instantaneous Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.6. Acceleration
-
- ☰ 2.1.2. Motion with Constant Acceleration
- ☰ 2.1.2.1. Kinematic Equations
- ☰ 2.1.2.2. Free Fall
- ☰ 2.1.2.3. Vertical Motion
- ☰ 2.1.2.4. Position-Time Graphs
- ☰ 2.1.2.5. Velocity-Time Graphs
- ☰ 2.1.2.6. Acceleration-Time Graphs
-
- ☰ 2.1.3. Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
- ☰ 2.1.3.1. Position Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.2. Velocity Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.3. Acceleration Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.4. Relative Motion
-
- ☰ 2.1.4. Projectile Motion
- ☰ 2.1.4.1. Horizontal Projection
- ☰ 2.1.4.2. Oblique Projection
- ☰ 2.1.4.3. Maximum Height
- ☰ 2.1.4.4. Time of Flight
- ☰ 2.1.4.5. Projectile Range
- ☰ 2.1.4.6. Trajectory Equation
-
- ☰ 2.1.5. Circular Motion
- ☰ 2.1.5.1. Angular Position
- ☰ 2.1.5.2. Angular Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.5.3. Angular Acceleration
- ☰ 2.1.5.4. Uniform Circular Motion
- ☰ 2.1.5.5. Centripetal Acceleration
-
-
- ☰ 2.2. Newton's Laws of Motion
- ☰ 2.2.1. Force
- ☰ 2.2.1.1. Concept of Force
- ☰ 2.2.1.2. Fundamental Forces
- ☰ 2.2.1.3. Contact Forces
- ☰ 2.2.1.4. Free-Body Diagrams
-
- ☰ 2.2.2. Newton's First Law
- ☰ 2.2.2.1. Inertia
- ☰ 2.2.2.2. Inertial Reference Frames
- ☰ 2.2.2.3. Equilibrium
-
- ☰ 2.2.3. Newton's Second Law
- ☰ 2.2.3.1. Force, Mass, and Acceleration
- ☰ 2.2.3.2. Net Force
- ☰ 2.2.3.3. Applications of F = ma
-
- ☰ 2.2.4. Newton's Third Law
- ☰ 2.2.4.1. Action-Reaction Pairs
- ☰ 2.2.4.2. Interaction Forces
-
- ☰ 2.2.5. Common Forces
- ☰ 2.2.5.1. Weight
- ☰ 2.2.5.2. Normal Force
- ☰ 2.2.5.3. Tension
- ☰ 2.2.5.4. Spring Force
- ☰ 2.2.5.5. Static Friction
- ☰ 2.2.5.6. Kinetic Friction
- ☰ 2.2.5.7. Drag Force
-
- ☰ 2.2.6. Applications of Newton's Laws
- ☰ 2.2.6.1. Connected Objects
- ☰ 2.2.6.2. Pulley Systems
- ☰ 2.2.6.3. Inclined Planes
- ☰ 2.2.6.4. Elevators
- ☰ 2.2.6.5. Circular Motion
-
-
- ☰ 2.3. Work and Energy
- ☰ 2.3.1. Work
- ☰ 2.3.1.1. Work Done by a Constant Force
- ☰ 2.3.1.2. Work Done by a Variable Force
- ☰ 2.3.1.3. Work from Force-Position Graphs
-
- ☰ 2.3.2. Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.3.2.1. Translational Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.3.2.2. Work-Energy Theorem
-
- ☰ 2.3.3. Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.1. Gravitational Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.2. Elastic Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.3. Potential-Energy Curves
-
- ☰ 2.3.4. Conservation of Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.1. Mechanical Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.2. Conservative Forces
- ☰ 2.3.4.3. Non-Conservative Forces
- ☰ 2.3.4.4. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.5. Energy Dissipation
-
- ☰ 2.3.5. Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.1. Average Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.2. Instantaneous Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.3. Efficiency
-
-
- ☰ 2.4. Momentum and Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.1. Linear Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.1.1. Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.1.2. Momentum and Force
-
- ☰ 2.4.2. Impulse
- ☰ 2.4.2.1. Impulse
- ☰ 2.4.2.2. Impulse-Momentum Theorem
- ☰ 2.4.2.3. Force-Time Graphs
-
- ☰ 2.4.3. Conservation of Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.3.1. Isolated Systems
- ☰ 2.4.3.2. Center-of-Mass Motion
-
- ☰ 2.4.4. Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.1. Elastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.2. Inelastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.3. Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.4. One-Dimensional Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.5. Two-Dimensional Collisions
-
- ☰ 2.4.5. Center of Mass
- ☰ 2.4.5.1. Center of Mass of Particles
- ☰ 2.4.5.2. Center of Mass of Continuous Objects
-
- ☰ 2.4.6. Rocket Motion
- ☰ 2.4.6.1. Variable-Mass Systems
- ☰ 2.4.6.2. Rocket Equation
-
-
- ☰ 2.5. Rotational Motion
- ☰ 2.5.1. Rotational Kinematics
- ☰ 2.5.1.1. Angular Displacement
- ☰ 2.5.1.2. Angular Velocity
- ☰ 2.5.1.3. Angular Acceleration
-
- ☰ 2.5.2. Torque
- ☰ 2.5.2.1. Torque
- ☰ 2.5.2.2. Lever Arm
- ☰ 2.5.2.3. Vector Definition of Torque
-
- ☰ 2.5.3. Moment of Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.1. Rotational Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.2. Common Moments of Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.3. Parallel-Axis Theorem
-
- ☰ 2.5.4. Rotational Dynamics
- ☰ 2.5.4.1. Newton's Second Law for Rotation
- ☰ 2.5.4.2. Rotational Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.5.4.3. Work and Power in Rotation
-
- ☰ 2.5.5. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 2.5.5.1. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 2.5.5.2. Conservation of Angular Momentum
-
- ☰ 2.5.6. Rolling Motion
- ☰ 2.5.6.1. Rolling Without Slipping
- ☰ 2.5.6.2. Translational and Rotational Energy
-
- ☰ 2.5.7. Static Equilibrium
- ☰ 2.5.7.1. Conditions for Equilibrium
- ☰ 2.5.7.2. Center of Gravity
- ☰ 2.5.7.3. Stability
-
-
- ☰ 2.6. Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1. Newton's Law of Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1.1. Universal Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1.2. Gravitational Constant
- ☰ 2.6.1.3. Superposition
-
- ☰ 2.6.2. Gravitational Field
- ☰ 2.6.2.1. Gravitational Field Strength
- ☰ 2.6.2.2. Field of Spherical Bodies
-
- ☰ 2.6.3. Gravitational Potential
- ☰ 2.6.3.1. Gravitational Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.6.3.2. Gravitational Potential
-
- ☰ 2.6.4. Planetary Motion
- ☰ 2.6.4.1. Kepler's Laws
- ☰ 2.6.4.2. Circular Orbits
- ☰ 2.6.4.3. Orbital Velocity
- ☰ 2.6.4.4. Orbital Period
-
- ☰ 2.6.5. Satellites and Spaceflight
- ☰ 2.6.5.1. Geostationary Satellites
- ☰ 2.6.5.2. Escape Velocity
- ☰ 2.6.5.3. Orbital Energy
-
-
-
- ☰ 3. Part II: Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids
- ☰ 3.1. Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.1. Simple Harmonic Motion
- ☰ 3.1.1.1. Periodic Motion
- ☰ 3.1.1.2. Amplitude
- ☰ 3.1.1.3. Frequency and Period
- ☰ 3.1.1.4. Angular Frequency
- ☰ 3.1.1.5. SHM Equation
-
- ☰ 3.1.2. Mass-Spring Systems
- ☰ 3.1.2.1. Hooke's Law
- ☰ 3.1.2.2. Spring Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.2.3. Energy in SHM
-
- ☰ 3.1.3. Pendulums
- ☰ 3.1.3.1. Simple Pendulum
- ☰ 3.1.3.2. Physical Pendulum
-
- ☰ 3.1.4. Damped Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.4.1. Damping
- ☰ 3.1.4.2. Critical Damping
-
- ☰ 3.1.5. Forced Oscillations and Resonance
- ☰ 3.1.5.1. Driving Force
- ☰ 3.1.5.2. Resonance
- ☰ 3.1.5.3. Natural Frequency
-
-
- ☰ 3.2. Mechanical Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1. Fundamentals of Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.1. Transverse Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.2. Longitudinal Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.3. Wavelength
- ☰ 3.2.1.4. Frequency
- ☰ 3.2.1.5. Wave Speed
- ☰ 3.2.1.6. Amplitude
-
- ☰ 3.2.2. Mathematical Description of Waves
- ☰ 3.2.2.1. Wave Function
- ☰ 3.2.2.2. Phase
- ☰ 3.2.2.3. Wave Equation
-
- ☰ 3.2.3. Superposition
- ☰ 3.2.3.1. Interference
- ☰ 3.2.3.2. Constructive Interference
- ☰ 3.2.3.3. Destructive Interference
-
- ☰ 3.2.4. Standing Waves
- ☰ 3.2.4.1. Nodes and Antinodes
- ☰ 3.2.4.2. Strings
- ☰ 3.2.4.3. Pipes
- ☰ 3.2.4.4. Harmonics
-
- ☰ 3.2.5. Sound Waves
- ☰ 3.2.5.1. Speed of Sound
- ☰ 3.2.5.2. Sound Intensity
- ☰ 3.2.5.3. Decibels
- ☰ 3.2.5.4. Beats
- ☰ 3.2.5.5. Doppler Effect
-
-
- ☰ 3.3. Fluid Mechanics
- ☰ 3.3.1. Properties of Fluids
- ☰ 3.3.1.1. Density
- ☰ 3.3.1.2. Pressure
- ☰ 3.3.1.3. Compressibility
-
- ☰ 3.3.2. Fluid Statics
- ☰ 3.3.2.1. Hydrostatic Pressure
- ☰ 3.3.2.2. Pascal's Principle
-
- ☰ 3.3.3. Buoyancy
- ☰ 3.3.3.1. Archimedes' Principle
- ☰ 3.3.3.2. Floating and Sinking
-
- ☰ 3.3.4. Fluid Dynamics
- ☰ 3.3.4.1. Flow Rate
- ☰ 3.3.4.2. Continuity Equation
- ☰ 3.3.4.3. Bernoulli's Equation
-
- ☰ 3.3.5. Viscosity
- ☰ 3.3.5.1. Laminar Flow
- ☰ 3.3.5.2. Turbulent Flow
- ☰ 3.3.5.3. Poiseuille's Law
- ☰ 3.3.5.4. Reynolds Number
-
-
-
- ☰ 4. Part III: Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.1. Temperature and Heat
- ☰ 4.1.1. Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
- ☰ 4.1.2. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.1.3. Temperature Scales
- ☰ 4.1.4. Thermal Expansion
- ☰ 4.1.5. Heat and Internal Energy
- ☰ 4.1.6. Specific Heat Capacity
- ☰ 4.1.7. Calorimetry
- ☰ 4.1.8. Phase Changes
- ☰ 4.1.9. Latent Heat
- ☰ 4.1.10. Heat Transfer
-
- ☰ 4.2. Kinetic Theory of Gases
- ☰ 4.2.1. Ideal Gas Law
- ☰ 4.2.2. Molecular Interpretation of Pressure
- ☰ 4.2.3. Temperature and Molecular Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 4.2.4. RMS Molecular Speed
- ☰ 4.2.5. Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
- ☰ 4.2.6. Mean Free Path
-
- ☰ 4.3. Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.1. Thermodynamic Systems
- ☰ 4.3.2. First Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.3. Isothermal Processes
- ☰ 4.3.4. Isobaric Processes
- ☰ 4.3.5. Isochoric Processes
- ☰ 4.3.6. Adiabatic Processes
- ☰ 4.3.7. Heat Engines
- ☰ 4.3.8. Carnot Cycle
- ☰ 4.3.9. Refrigerators
- ☰ 4.3.10. Second Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.11. Entropy
- ☰ 4.3.12. Reversible and Irreversible Processes
-
-
- ☰ 5. Part IV: Electricity and Magnetism
- ☰ 5.1. Electric Charge and Electric Field
- ☰ 5.1.1. Electric Charge
- ☰ 5.1.2. Conductors and Insulators
- ☰ 5.1.3. Coulomb's Law
- ☰ 5.1.4. Superposition
- ☰ 5.1.5. Electric Field
- ☰ 5.1.6. Electric Field Lines
- ☰ 5.1.7. Electric Dipoles
- ☰ 5.1.8. Electric Flux
- ☰ 5.1.9. Gauss's Law
-
- ☰ 5.2. Electric Potential
- ☰ 5.2.1. Electric Potential Energy
- ☰ 5.2.2. Electric Potential
- ☰ 5.2.3. Equipotential Surfaces
- ☰ 5.2.4. Relationship Between Potential and Field
- ☰ 5.2.5. Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
-
- ☰ 5.3. Capacitance
- ☰ 5.3.1. Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.2. Parallel-Plate Capacitor
- ☰ 5.3.3. Series and Parallel Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.4. Energy Stored in Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.5. Dielectrics
- ☰ 5.3.6. Polarization
-
- ☰ 5.4. Electric Current and Resistance
- ☰ 5.4.1. Electric Current
- ☰ 5.4.2. Current Density
- ☰ 5.4.3. Drift Velocity
- ☰ 5.4.4. Resistance
- ☰ 5.4.5. Ohm's Law
- ☰ 5.4.6. Resistivity
- ☰ 5.4.7. Electrical Energy
- ☰ 5.4.8. Electric Power
- ☰ 5.4.9. Electromotive Force
-
- ☰ 5.5. DC Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.1. Kirchhoff's Laws
- ☰ 5.5.2. Multi-Loop Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.3. RC Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.4. Measuring Instruments
-
- ☰ 5.6. Magnetism
- ☰ 5.6.1. Magnetic Fields
- ☰ 5.6.2. Lorentz Force
- ☰ 5.6.3. Motion of Charged Particles
- ☰ 5.6.4. Force on Current-Carrying Wires
- ☰ 5.6.5. Torque on Current Loops
- ☰ 5.6.6. Biot-Savart Law
- ☰ 5.6.7. Ampère's Law
- ☰ 5.6.8. Solenoids
- ☰ 5.6.9. Magnetic Materials
-
- ☰ 5.7. Electromagnetic Induction
- ☰ 5.7.1. Magnetic Flux
- ☰ 5.7.2. Faraday's Law
- ☰ 5.7.3. Lenz's Law
- ☰ 5.7.4. Motional EMF
- ☰ 5.7.5. Self-Inductance
- ☰ 5.7.6. Mutual Inductance
- ☰ 5.7.7. RL Circuits
- ☰ 5.7.8. LC Oscillations
-
- ☰ 5.8. Alternating Current
- ☰ 5.8.1. AC Voltage and Current
- ☰ 5.8.2. RMS Quantities
- ☰ 5.8.3. Resistors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.4. Capacitors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.5. Inductors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.6. RLC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.7. Impedance
- ☰ 5.8.8. Resonance
- ☰ 5.8.9. Transformers
-
- ☰ 5.9. Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.1. Gauss's Law for Electricity
- ☰ 5.9.2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism
- ☰ 5.9.3. Faraday's Law
- ☰ 5.9.4. Ampère-Maxwell Law
- ☰ 5.9.5. Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.6. Speed of Light
- ☰ 5.9.7. Electromagnetic Spectrum
- ☰ 5.9.8. Poynting Vector
- ☰ 5.9.9. Radiation Pressure
-
-
- ☰ 6. Part V: Optics
- ☰ 6.1. Geometrical Optics
- ☰ 6.1.1. Nature of Light
- ☰ 6.1.2. Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.3. Plane Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.4. Refraction
- ☰ 6.1.5. Snell's Law
- ☰ 6.1.6. Total Internal Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.7. Spherical Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.8. Thin Lenses
- ☰ 6.1.9. Mirror Equation
- ☰ 6.1.10. Lens Equation
- ☰ 6.1.11. Magnification
- ☰ 6.1.12. Ray Diagrams
- ☰ 6.1.13. Optical Instruments
-
- ☰ 6.2. Wave Optics
- ☰ 6.2.1. Interference
- ☰ 6.2.2. Young's Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 6.2.3. Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.4. Single-Slit Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.5. Diffraction Gratings
- ☰ 6.2.6. Polarization
- ☰ 6.2.7. Malus's Law
- ☰ 6.2.8. Brewster's Angle
- ☰ 6.2.9. Rayleigh Criterion
- ☰ 6.2.10. Optical Resolution
-
-
- ☰ 7. Part VI: Modern Physics
- ☰ 7.1. Special Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.1. Galilean Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.2. Michelson-Morley Experiment
- ☰ 7.1.3. Einstein's Postulates
- ☰ 7.1.4. Lorentz Transformations
- ☰ 7.1.5. Relativity of Simultaneity
- ☰ 7.1.6. Time Dilation
- ☰ 7.1.7. Length Contraction
- ☰ 7.1.8. Relativistic Velocity Addition
- ☰ 7.1.9. Relativistic Momentum
- ☰ 7.1.10. Relativistic Energy
- ☰ 7.1.11. Mass-Energy Equivalence
- ☰ 7.1.12. Energy-Momentum Relation
- ☰ 7.1.13. Spacetime Diagrams
- ☰ 7.1.14. Light Cones
-
- ☰ 7.2. Introduction to Quantum Physics
- ☰ 7.2.1. Blackbody Radiation
- ☰ 7.2.2. Planck's Hypothesis
- ☰ 7.2.3. Photoelectric Effect
- ☰ 7.2.4. Photon Energy
- ☰ 7.2.5. Photon Momentum
- ☰ 7.2.6. Compton Scattering
- ☰ 7.2.7. de Broglie Wavelength
- ☰ 7.2.8. Matter Waves
- ☰ 7.2.9. Wave-Particle Duality
- ☰ 7.2.10. Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 7.2.11. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
-
- ☰ 7.3. Quantum Mechanics
- ☰ 7.3.1. Wave Function
- ☰ 7.3.2. Probability Interpretation
- ☰ 7.3.3. Normalization
- ☰ 7.3.4. Schrödinger Equation
- ☰ 7.3.5. Operators and Observables
- ☰ 7.3.6. Expectation Values
- ☰ 7.3.7. Particle in a Box
- ☰ 7.3.8. Finite Potential Wells
- ☰ 7.3.9. Quantum Tunneling
- ☰ 7.3.10. Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
- ☰ 7.3.11. Hydrogen Atom
- ☰ 7.3.12. Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 7.3.13. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 7.3.14. Spin
- ☰ 7.3.15. Stern-Gerlach Experiment
- ☰ 7.3.16. Pauli Exclusion Principle
-
- ☰ 7.4. Atomic Physics
- ☰ 7.4.1. Thomson Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.2. Rutherford Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.3. Bohr Model
- ☰ 7.4.4. Atomic Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.5. Hydrogen Spectrum
- ☰ 7.4.6. Electron Shells
- ☰ 7.4.7. Orbitals
- ☰ 7.4.8. Electron Configurations
- ☰ 7.4.9. X-Ray Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.10. Atomic Transitions
- ☰ 7.4.11. Lasers
- ☰ 7.4.12. Stimulated Emission
-
-
- ☰ 8. Part VII: Nuclear and Particle Physics
- ☰ 8.1. Nuclear Structure
- ☰ 8.1.1. The Atomic Nucleus
- ☰ 8.1.1.1. Protons and Neutrons
- ☰ 8.1.1.2. Atomic Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.3. Mass Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.4. Isotopes
- ☰ 8.1.1.5. Isotones
- ☰ 8.1.1.6. Isobars
-
- ☰ 8.1.2. Nuclear Size and Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.1. Nuclear Radius
- ☰ 8.1.2.2. Nuclear Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.3. Nuclear Charge Distribution
-
- ☰ 8.1.3. Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.1. Strong Nuclear Force
- ☰ 8.1.3.2. Properties of Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.3. Proton-Neutron Interaction
- ☰ 8.1.3.4. Nuclear Stability
-
- ☰ 8.1.4. Mass and Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.1. Atomic Mass Units
- ☰ 8.1.4.2. Mass Defect
- ☰ 8.1.4.3. Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.4. Binding Energy per Nucleon
- ☰ 8.1.4.5. Binding-Energy Curve
-
- ☰ 8.1.5. Nuclear Models
- ☰ 8.1.5.1. Liquid-Drop Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.2. Semi-Empirical Mass Formula
- ☰ 8.1.5.3. Nuclear Shell Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.4. Magic Numbers
- ☰ 8.1.5.5. Collective Model
-
- ☰ 8.1.6. Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Moments
- ☰ 8.1.6.1. Nuclear Angular Momentum
- ☰ 8.1.6.2. Nuclear Spin
- ☰ 8.1.6.3. Nuclear Magnetic Moment
-
-
- ☰ 8.2. Radioactivity and Nuclear Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1. Radioactive Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.1. Nuclear Instability
- ☰ 8.2.1.2. Random Nature of Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.3. Decay Constant
-
- ☰ 8.2.2. Radioactive Decay Law
- ☰ 8.2.2.1. Exponential Decay
- ☰ 8.2.2.2. Activity
- ☰ 8.2.2.3. Half-Life
- ☰ 8.2.2.4. Mean Lifetime
-
- ☰ 8.2.3. Alpha Decay
- ☰ 8.2.3.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.2.3.2. Energy of Alpha Decay
-
- ☰ 8.2.4. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.1. Beta-Minus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.2. Beta-Plus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.3. Electron Capture
- ☰ 8.2.4.4. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.2.4.5. Energy Spectrum
-
- ☰ 8.2.5. Gamma Decay
- ☰ 8.2.5.1. Nuclear Excited States
- ☰ 8.2.5.2. Gamma-Ray Emission
- ☰ 8.2.5.3. Internal Conversion
-
- ☰ 8.2.6. Decay Chains
- ☰ 8.2.6.1. Parent and Daughter Nuclei
- ☰ 8.2.6.2. Secular Equilibrium
- ☰ 8.2.6.3. Natural Radioactive Series
-
-
- ☰ 8.3. Interaction of Radiation with Matter
- ☰ 8.3.1. Charged Particle Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.3.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.3.1.3. Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.1.4. Stopping Power
- ☰ 8.3.1.5. Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.2. Heavy Charged Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.2. Bragg Curve
- ☰ 8.3.2.3. Bragg Peak
-
- ☰ 8.3.3. Electron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.3.1. Collisional Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.3.2. Bremsstrahlung
- ☰ 8.3.3.3. Electron Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.4. Photon Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.4.1. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.3.4.2. Rayleigh Scattering
-
- ☰ 8.3.5. Attenuation of Radiation
- ☰ 8.3.5.1. Linear Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.2. Mass Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.3. Exponential Attenuation
- ☰ 8.3.5.4. Half-Value Layer
-
- ☰ 8.3.6. Neutron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.6.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.3. Neutron Capture
- ☰ 8.3.6.4. Neutron Moderation
-
-
- ☰ 8.4. Radiation Detection and Measurement
- ☰ 8.4.1. Principles of Radiation Detection
- ☰ 8.4.1.1. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.4.1.2. Detector Efficiency
- ☰ 8.4.1.3. Energy Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.4. Timing Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.5. Dead Time
-
- ☰ 8.4.2. Gas-Filled Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.2.1. Ionization Chambers
- ☰ 8.4.2.2. Proportional Counters
- ☰ 8.4.2.3. Geiger-Müller Counters
-
- ☰ 8.4.3. Scintillation Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.3.1. Scintillation Process
- ☰ 8.4.3.2. Organic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.3. Inorganic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.4. Photomultiplier Tubes
- ☰ 8.4.3.5. Silicon Photomultipliers
-
- ☰ 8.4.4. Semiconductor Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.1. Silicon Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.2. Germanium Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.3. Electron-Hole Pair Creation
-
- ☰ 8.4.5. Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
- ☰ 8.4.5.1. Photopeak
- ☰ 8.4.5.2. Compton Continuum
- ☰ 8.4.5.3. Compton Edge
- ☰ 8.4.5.4. Escape Peaks
-
- ☰ 8.4.6. Coincidence Measurements
- ☰ 8.4.6.1. Coincidence Detection
- ☰ 8.4.6.2. Timing Windows
- ☰ 8.4.6.3. True Coincidences
- ☰ 8.4.6.4. Random Coincidences
-
-
- ☰ 8.5. Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1. Principles of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1.1. Reaction Notation
- ☰ 8.5.1.2. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.5.1.3. Reaction Energetics
-
- ☰ 8.5.2. Q-Value
- ☰ 8.5.2.1. Exothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.2. Endothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.3. Reaction Thresholds
-
- ☰ 8.5.3. Reaction Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.1. Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.2. Reaction Probability
- ☰ 8.5.3.3. Energy Dependence
-
- ☰ 8.5.4. Types of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.3. Capture Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.4. Transfer Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.5. Charge-Exchange Reactions
-
- ☰ 8.5.5. Compound Nucleus
- ☰ 8.5.5.1. Formation
- ☰ 8.5.5.2. Decay Channels
- ☰ 8.5.5.3. Resonances
-
-
- ☰ 8.6. Nuclear Fission and Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.1. Nuclear Fission
- ☰ 8.6.1.1. Fission Process
- ☰ 8.6.1.2. Fission Fragments
- ☰ 8.6.1.3. Energy Release
- ☰ 8.6.1.4. Neutron Production
-
- ☰ 8.6.2. Chain Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.2.1. Criticality
- ☰ 8.6.2.2. Multiplication Factor
- ☰ 8.6.2.3. Critical Mass
-
- ☰ 8.6.3. Nuclear Reactors
- ☰ 8.6.3.1. Reactor Components
- ☰ 8.6.3.2. Fuel
- ☰ 8.6.3.3. Moderator
- ☰ 8.6.3.4. Control Rods
- ☰ 8.6.3.5. Coolant
-
- ☰ 8.6.4. Nuclear Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.4.1. Fusion Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.4.2. Coulomb Barrier
-
- ☰ 8.6.5. Stellar Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.5.1. Proton-Proton Chain
- ☰ 8.6.5.2. CNO Cycle
- ☰ 8.6.5.3. Nucleosynthesis
-
- ☰ 8.6.6. Controlled Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.6.1. Magnetic Confinement
- ☰ 8.6.6.2. Tokamaks
- ☰ 8.6.6.3. Inertial Confinement
-
-
- ☰ 8.7. Particle Physics Foundations
- ☰ 8.7.1. From Atoms to Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.1.1. Discovery of the Electron
- ☰ 8.7.1.2. Discovery of the Nucleus
- ☰ 8.7.1.3. Discovery of the Neutron
- ☰ 8.7.1.4. Discovery of Antimatter
-
- ☰ 8.7.2. Classification of Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.1. Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.2. Composite Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.3. Fermions
- ☰ 8.7.2.4. Bosons
-
- ☰ 8.7.3. Antiparticles
- ☰ 8.7.3.1. Matter and Antimatter
- ☰ 8.7.3.2. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.7.3.3. Annihilation
-
- ☰ 8.7.4. Relativistic Particle Kinematics
- ☰ 8.7.4.1. Four-Momentum
- ☰ 8.7.4.2. Invariant Mass
-
- ☰ 8.7.5. Particle Decays
- ☰ 8.7.5.1. Decay Width
- ☰ 8.7.5.2. Lifetime
- ☰ 8.7.5.3. Branching Ratio
- ☰ 8.7.5.4. Conservation Laws
-
-
- ☰ 8.8. Quarks and Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.8.1.1. Up Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.2. Down Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.3. Strange Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.4. Charm Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.5. Top Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.6. Bottom Quark
-
- ☰ 8.8.2. Quark Properties
- ☰ 8.8.2.1. Mass
- ☰ 8.8.2.2. Flavor
- ☰ 8.8.2.3. Color Charge
-
- ☰ 8.8.3. Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.3.1. Baryons
- ☰ 8.8.3.2. Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.4. Baryon Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.1. Proton Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.2. Neutron Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.3. Other Baryons
-
- ☰ 8.8.5. Meson Structure
- ☰ 8.8.5.1. Pions
- ☰ 8.8.5.2. Kaons
- ☰ 8.8.5.3. Heavy Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.6. Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.1. Color Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.2. Hadronization
- ☰ 8.8.6.3. Jets
-
-
- ☰ 8.9. Leptons and Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.1. Charged Leptons
- ☰ 8.9.1.1. Electron
- ☰ 8.9.1.2. Muon
- ☰ 8.9.1.3. Tau
-
- ☰ 8.9.2. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.2.1. Electron Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.2. Muon Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.3. Tau Neutrino
-
- ☰ 8.9.3. Neutrino Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.1. Weak Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.2. Neutrino Detection
-
- ☰ 8.9.4. Neutrino Oscillations
- ☰ 8.9.4.1. Neutrino Flavor
- ☰ 8.9.4.2. Flavor Oscillation
- ☰ 8.9.4.3. Neutrino Mass
-
-
- ☰ 8.10. Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1. Four Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1.1. Electromagnetism
- ☰ 8.10.1.2. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.1.3. Weak Interaction
-
- ☰ 8.10.2. Exchange Particles
- ☰ 8.10.2.1. Photons
- ☰ 8.10.2.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.2.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.2.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.10.3. Electromagnetic Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.3.1. Photon Exchange
-
- ☰ 8.10.4. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.4.1. Color Charge
- ☰ 8.10.4.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.4.3. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.10.5. Weak Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.5.1. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.10.5.2. W and Z Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.5.3. Flavor-Changing Processes
-
-
- ☰ 8.11. The Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1. Overview of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1.1. Matter Particles
- ☰ 8.11.1.2. Force Carriers
- ☰ 8.11.1.3. Particle Generations
-
- ☰ 8.11.2. Fermions
- ☰ 8.11.2.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.11.2.2. Leptons
-
- ☰ 8.11.3. Gauge Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.1. Photon
- ☰ 8.11.3.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.11.3.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.4. Higgs Field and Higgs Boson
- ☰ 8.11.4.1. Higgs Field
- ☰ 8.11.4.2. Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
- ☰ 8.11.4.3. Particle Masses
- ☰ 8.11.4.4. Higgs Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.5. Standard Model Interactions
- ☰ 8.11.5.1. Electroweak Theory
- ☰ 8.11.5.2. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.11.6. Limitations of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.6.1. Gravity
- ☰ 8.11.6.2. Dark Matter
- ☰ 8.11.6.3. Neutrino Masses
- ☰ 8.11.6.4. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.12. Symmetries and Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1.1. Energy
-
- ☰ 8.12.2. Particle Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 8.12.2.1. Baryon Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.2. Lepton Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.3. Strangeness
- ☰ 8.12.2.4. Charm
- ☰ 8.12.2.5. Isospin
-
- ☰ 8.12.3. Symmetries
- ☰ 8.12.3.1. Charge Conjugation
- ☰ 8.12.3.2. Parity
- ☰ 8.12.3.3. Time Reversal
-
- ☰ 8.12.4. CP Symmetry
- ☰ 8.12.4.1. CP Conservation
- ☰ 8.12.4.2. CP Violation
- ☰ 8.12.4.3. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.13. Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.1. Principles of Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.1. Electric-Field Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.2. Magnetic-Field Steering
-
- ☰ 8.13.2. Linear Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.2.1. LINACs
- ☰ 8.13.2.2. Radio-Frequency Acceleration
-
- ☰ 8.13.3. Cyclotrons
- ☰ 8.13.3.1. Cyclotron Principle
- ☰ 8.13.3.2. Cyclotron Frequency
- ☰ 8.13.3.3. Limitations
-
- ☰ 8.13.4. Synchrotrons
- ☰ 8.13.4.1. Circular Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.4.2. Magnetic Focusing
- ☰ 8.13.4.3. RF Cavities
-
- ☰ 8.13.5. Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.5.1. Fixed-Target Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.2. Collider Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.3. Center-of-Mass Energy
-
- ☰ 8.13.6. Major Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.6.1. Large Hadron Collider
- ☰ 8.13.6.2. Electron-Positron Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.6.3. Heavy-Ion Colliders
-
-
- ☰ 8.14. Particle Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.1. Principles of Particle Detection
- ☰ 8.14.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.14.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.14.1.3. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.14.1.4. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.2. Tracking Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.2.1. Cloud Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.2. Bubble Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.3. Wire Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.4. Silicon Trackers
-
- ☰ 8.14.3. Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.1. Electromagnetic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.2. Hadronic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.3. Shower Development
-
- ☰ 8.14.4. Cherenkov Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.4.1. Cherenkov Radiation
- ☰ 8.14.4.2. Particle Velocity Measurement
-
- ☰ 8.14.5. Time-of-Flight Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.5.1. Timing Measurements
- ☰ 8.14.5.2. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.6. Modern Detector Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.1. Tracking
- ☰ 8.14.6.2. Muon Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.3. Trigger Systems
-
-
-
- ☰ 9. Part VIII: Condensed Matter and Applied Physics
- ☰ 9.1. Solid-State Physics
- ☰ 9.1.1. Crystal Structure
- ☰ 9.1.1.1. Crystal Lattices
- ☰ 9.1.1.2. Unit Cells
- ☰ 9.1.1.3. Bravais Lattices
-
- ☰ 9.1.2. Electronic Properties
- ☰ 9.1.2.1. Energy Bands
- ☰ 9.1.2.2. Conductors
- ☰ 9.1.2.3. Insulators
- ☰ 9.1.2.4. Semiconductors
-
- ☰ 9.1.3. Semiconductor Physics
- ☰ 9.1.3.1. Intrinsic Semiconductors
- ☰ 9.1.3.2. Doping
- ☰ 9.1.3.3. p-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.4. n-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.5. p-n Junctions
-
- ☰ 9.1.4. Superconductivity
- ☰ 9.1.4.1. Zero Resistance
- ☰ 9.1.4.2. Meissner Effect
- ☰ 9.1.4.3. Critical Temperature
-
-
- ☰ 9.2. Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.1. Semiconductor Diodes
- ☰ 9.2.1.1. p-n Junction
- ☰ 9.2.1.2. Diode Characteristics
- ☰ 9.2.1.3. Rectifiers
-
- ☰ 9.2.2. Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.2. Field-Effect Transistors
-
- ☰ 9.2.3. Operational Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.1. Ideal Op-Amp
- ☰ 9.2.3.2. Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.3. Comparators
-
- ☰ 9.2.4. Digital Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.4.1. Binary Numbers
- ☰ 9.2.4.2. Logic Gates
- ☰ 9.2.4.3. Boolean Algebra
- ☰ 9.2.4.4. Basic Digital Circuits
-
-
-
- ☰ 10. Part IX: Astrophysics and Cosmology
- ☰ 10.1. Astrophysics
- ☰ 10.1.1. Measuring the Universe
- ☰ 10.1.1.1. Astronomical Distances
- ☰ 10.1.1.2. Parallax
- ☰ 10.1.1.3. Luminosity
- ☰ 10.1.1.4. Apparent Brightness
-
- ☰ 10.1.2. Stars
- ☰ 10.1.2.1. Stellar Spectra
- ☰ 10.1.2.2. Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
- ☰ 10.1.2.3. Stellar Evolution
-
- ☰ 10.1.3. Stellar Remnants
- ☰ 10.1.3.1. White Dwarfs
- ☰ 10.1.3.2. Neutron Stars
- ☰ 10.1.3.3. Black Holes
-
- ☰ 10.1.4. Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.1. Structure of Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.2. Milky Way
- ☰ 10.1.4.3. Galaxy Classification
-
-
- ☰ 10.2. Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.1. Expanding Universe
- ☰ 10.2.1.1. Hubble's Law
- ☰ 10.2.1.2. Cosmological Redshift
-
- ☰ 10.2.2. Big Bang Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.2.1. Early Universe
- ☰ 10.2.2.2. Cosmic Microwave Background
- ☰ 10.2.2.3. Primordial Nucleosynthesis
-
- ☰ 10.2.3. Dark Matter
- ☰ 10.2.3.1. Evidence for Dark Matter
-
-
-