KAHIBARO
Table of Contents
Basic idea
When a beam of radiation passes through matter, its intensity usually decreases as the material gets thicker. This decrease is called attenuation. In many important cases, the reduction follows an exponential law.
Exponential attenuation means that each small layer of material removes the same fraction of the radiation, not the same fixed amount. Because the loss is proportional to how much radiation is still left, the intensity falls rapidly at first and then more slowly.
The attenuation law
Let $I(x)$ be the intensity of radiation after it has traveled through a thickness $x$ of material. If the material is uniform and the radiation beam is narrow, the change in intensity over a small thickness $dx$ is proportional to the current intensity:
$$
dI = -\mu I\,dx
$$
Here, $\mu$ is the linear attenuation coefficient. The minus sign shows that intensity decreases as thickness increases.
Solving this equation gives the exponential attenuation law:
$$
I(x) = I_0 e^{-\mu x}
$$
where $I_0$ is the initial intensity at $x = 0$.
For exponential attenuation in a uniform material,
$$
I = I_0 e^{-\mu x}
$$
where $\mu$ is the linear attenuation coefficient and $x$ is the thickness.
This formula also applies to related quantities such as photon flux or count rate, as long as the measurement conditions stay the same.
Physical meaning of the exponential form
The exponential law appears because attenuation is a random process. A photon entering the material has some probability of interacting in each small distance traveled. If that probability per unit length stays constant, then the number of photons that survive decreases exponentially.
This means that after one thickness interval, a certain fraction survives. After the next equal interval, the same fraction of the remaining photons survives again. The result is repeated fractional reduction.
For example, if $80\%$ of photons survive every $1 \text{ cm}$, then after another $1 \text{ cm}$, it is $80\%$ of what remained, not $80\%$ of the original beam.
Differential view
The differential equation
$$
\frac{dI}{dx} = -\mu I
$$
shows that the slope of the intensity curve is always negative and proportional to the current intensity. Large intensity gives a large rate of decrease, while small intensity gives a smaller rate of decrease.
If we separate variables,
$$
\frac{dI}{I} = -\mu\,dx
$$
and integrate,
$$
\ln I = -\mu x + C
$$
Using $I = I_0$ at $x = 0$ gives $C = \ln I_0$, so
$$
\ln I = \ln I_0 - \mu x
$$
or
$$
I = I_0 e^{-\mu x}
$$
This also shows that a plot of $\ln I$ versus $x$ is a straight line with slope $-\mu$.
A useful linear form is
$$
\ln\!\left(\frac{I}{I_0}\right) = -\mu x
$$
So if you graph $\ln I$ against $x$, the slope is $-\mu$.
Survival probability interpretation
Exponential attenuation can be understood in terms of survival probability. If $N_0$ photons enter the absorber and $N$ emerge without interacting, then
$$
N = N_0 e^{-\mu x}
$$
So the probability that a photon survives a thickness $x$ is
$$
P_{\text{survive}} = \frac{N}{N_0} = e^{-\mu x}
$$
The probability that it interacts within that thickness is
$$
P_{\text{interact}} = 1 - e^{-\mu x}
$$
This interpretation is especially useful in radiation physics and detector design.
Linear attenuation coefficient
The constant $\mu$ tells how strongly the material attenuates radiation. A larger $\mu$ means stronger attenuation and a faster drop in intensity.
Its SI unit is inverse length, usually written as:
$$
\mu \sim \text{m}^{-1}
$$
In practice, $\text{cm}^{-1}$ is also common.
If $\mu$ is large, only a small thickness is needed to reduce the beam. If $\mu$ is small, the radiation penetrates more deeply.
The value of $\mu$ depends on the material and on the radiation energy.
Fraction transmitted and fraction absorbed
The transmitted fraction is the ratio
$$
\frac{I}{I_0} = e^{-\mu x}
$$
The absorbed or removed fraction is
$$
1 - \frac{I}{I_0} = 1 - e^{-\mu x}
$$
These forms are often more useful than the absolute intensity.
| Quantity | Formula | Meaning |
|---|---|---|
| Transmitted intensity | $I = I_0 e^{-\mu x}$ | Intensity after thickness $x$ |
| Transmission fraction | $\dfrac{I}{I_0} = e^{-\mu x}$ | Fraction that survives |
| Removed fraction | $1 - e^{-\mu x}$ | Fraction attenuated |
Characteristic thicknesses
A very useful quantity is the mean free path, often written as $\lambda$:
$$
\lambda = \frac{1}{\mu}
$$
This is the characteristic distance over which the beam intensity falls by a factor of $e$:
$$
I(\lambda) = I_0 e^{-1} \approx 0.37 I_0
$$
Another common quantity is the half-value layer, the thickness that reduces the intensity to half its original value. If we call it $x_{1/2}$, then
$$
\frac{I}{I_0} = \frac{1}{2} = e^{-\mu x_{1/2}}
$$
Taking the natural logarithm gives
$$
x_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\mu}
$$
Similarly, the tenth-value layer is the thickness that reduces the intensity to one tenth:
$$
x_{1/10} = \frac{\ln 10}{\mu}
$$
Important characteristic thicknesses:
$$
\lambda = \frac{1}{\mu}, \qquad x_{1/2} = \frac{\ln 2}{\mu}, \qquad x_{1/10} = \frac{\ln 10}{\mu}
$$
Successive layers
If radiation passes through several layers of the same material, the total thickness is what matters:
$$
I = I_0 e^{-\mu (x_1 + x_2 + \cdots)}
$$
If it passes through different materials, each with its own attenuation coefficient, then the exponents add:
$$
I = I_0 e^{-\mu_1 x_1} e^{-\mu_2 x_2} \cdots
$$
or
$$
I = I_0 e^{-(\mu_1 x_1 + \mu_2 x_2 + \cdots)}
$$
This is very useful for shielding calculations.
Example calculation
Suppose a gamma ray beam has initial intensity $I_0 = 1000$ counts per second and passes through a material with $\mu = 0.20 \,\text{cm}^{-1}$. If the thickness is $x = 5.0 \,\text{cm}$, then
$$
I = 1000 e^{-(0.20)(5.0)} = 1000 e^{-1}
$$
Since $e^{-1} \approx 0.368$,
$$
I \approx 368 \text{ counts/s}
$$
So about $36.8\%$ of the beam is transmitted, and about $63.2\%$ is attenuated.
Graph of attenuation
The intensity curve is not a straight line when plotted directly against thickness. It bends downward and approaches zero gradually. But the logarithm of intensity changes linearly with thickness.
When the law works well
Exponential attenuation is a very good model when the material is uniform, the radiation energy is well defined, and the beam is narrow enough that scattered radiation does not significantly re-enter the detector.
Under these conditions, each photon either survives or is removed from the beam independently, and the attenuation coefficient remains effectively constant through the material.
Limitations
Real experiments may differ from the ideal law. A broad beam can allow scattered photons to still reach the detector, making the observed attenuation weaker than the simple exponential prediction. Also, if the radiation contains many different energies, then different parts of the beam may attenuate differently, so a single $\mu$ may not describe the whole beam perfectly.
Even so, the exponential attenuation law remains one of the central mathematical models for radiation passing through matter.
Exponential attenuation is an ideal narrow-beam result. In real measurements, scattering and mixed radiation energies can make the observed intensity differ from
$$
I = I_0 e^{-\mu x}
$$
Summary
Exponential attenuation describes how radiation intensity decreases in matter when each small thickness removes a fixed fraction of the remaining beam. The basic law is
$$
I = I_0 e^{-\mu x}
$$
The coefficient $\mu$ measures how strongly the material attenuates radiation. Larger $\mu$ means faster attenuation. Useful related quantities include the survival fraction $e^{-\mu x}$, the mean free path $1/\mu$, and the half-value layer $\ln 2 / \mu$. This simple exponential law is fundamental in shielding, detector physics, and radiation measurements.