2.7 International Climate Agreements

Origins Of International Climate Agreements

International climate agreements grew out of a simple reality. Greenhouse gases mix throughout the atmosphere, so emissions from any country affect every other country. No single nation can solve climate change alone. This created a need for a shared framework for action, negotiation, and accountability among governments.

In the late 1980s and early 1990s, scientific evidence of human driven climate change became harder to ignore. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) began publishing assessments that summarized climate science for policymakers. In response, countries negotiated a basic global treaty, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, often shortened to UNFCCC. This convention was adopted at the Rio Earth Summit in 1992 and entered into force in 1994.

The UNFCCC became the legal and institutional foundation for all later climate agreements. It set broad goals, created structures for yearly negotiations, and established common language and principles that guide climate diplomacy to this day.

The UN Framework Convention On Climate Change (UNFCCC)

The UNFCCC is a framework treaty. It defines the problem, states long term objectives, and organizes cooperation, but it did not initially impose precise emission reduction obligations. Its key aims are to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that prevents dangerous human interference with the climate system and to allow ecosystems to adapt naturally, protect food production, and enable sustainable economic development.

Under the UNFCCC, countries are called Parties. They meet annually at Conferences of the Parties, known as COPs, to discuss progress, negotiate new agreements, and refine rules. The UNFCCC recognizes that countries differ in their historical responsibility for emissions and their capacities to act. This idea is captured in the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, which guides how burdens and expectations are shared.

The convention divides Parties into groups. Industrialized countries and economies in transition are listed in Annex I. A subset of these, mainly wealthy economies, are also listed in Annex II and are expected to provide financial and technological support to developing countries. Non Annex I Parties are primarily developing countries, including many that are highly vulnerable to climate impacts. Least developed countries and small island developing states receive special attention due to their limited resources and high exposure to climate risks.

The Kyoto Protocol: Binding Targets For Industrialized Countries

The first major agreement under the UNFCCC that set specific emission limits was the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 and entering into force in 2005. Kyoto focused on industrialized countries, reflecting the view at the time that they bore primary responsibility for historical emissions and had greater capacity to reduce them.

Under Kyoto, a group of developed countries agreed to quantified emission limitation or reduction commitments, usually referred to as binding targets. The first commitment period ran from 2008 to 2012. Targets were expressed as percentage reductions relative to a base year, typically 1990. Some countries agreed to cut emissions, others to stabilize them, and a few were allowed small increases, but overall the group was expected to reduce emissions compared to the baseline.

Kyoto also introduced international market based mechanisms that allowed countries some flexibility in how they met their targets. Joint implementation allowed cooperation between industrialized countries on emission reduction projects. The Clean Development Mechanism allowed emission reduction projects in developing countries to generate tradable credits that could be used by industrialized countries to help meet their commitments. International emissions trading created a basic carbon market among participating developed countries.

These mechanisms were designed to lower the cost of mitigation and encourage technology transfer. However, the coverage of global emissions was limited because major emerging economies did not have binding targets, and some large emitters did not ratify or fully participate. Over time, it became clear that a new approach was needed, one that involved all countries in a more inclusive and flexible way.

The Paris Agreement: A Universal Framework

The Paris Agreement, adopted at COP21 in 2015, responded to the limitations of earlier approaches and changing global realities. Unlike the Kyoto Protocol, Paris applies to all Parties, both developed and developing. The central idea is that every country puts forward its own climate plan, known as a nationally determined contribution, or NDC, and updates it regularly with increasing ambition.

The Paris Agreement sets a collective long term temperature goal. Countries agreed to hold the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C. The agreement also aims for a balance between anthropogenic emissions and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases in the second half of this century. This is commonly interpreted as a goal of reaching net zero global emissions around mid century.

Paris retains the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, but applies it in a more dynamic way. All Parties are expected to act, yet those with greater capacity and historical responsibility are expected to provide support and to lead in reducing emissions faster and earlier.

Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs)

NDCs are at the heart of the Paris system. Each Party decides its own contribution to the global effort, informed by national circumstances, capabilities, and priorities. An NDC usually sets a target for greenhouse gas emissions, for example a specific reduction by a target year compared to a base year, or a peak year for emissions. It may also include policies, sectoral goals, and adaptation measures.

NDCs must be prepared, communicated, and maintained by each Party, and new NDCs are expected every five years. The agreement requires that each successive NDC will represent a progression beyond the Party’s previous one and reflect its highest possible ambition. While the content of NDCs is nationally decided, there are agreed rules on how they should be reported and tracked to enable transparency and comparison.

Adaptation and resilience building can also be part of NDCs, recognizing that many vulnerable countries prioritize preparing for climate impacts alongside mitigation. Some NDCs include conditional elements, where countries specify what they can achieve with domestic resources and what additional measures are possible with international financial or technological support.

Transparency, Reporting, And The Global Stocktake

To build trust and ensure that national pledges add up to sufficient global action, the Paris Agreement includes a transparency framework. All Parties must regularly provide information on their greenhouse gas emissions and on progress toward their NDCs. They must also report on adaptation efforts and the support they provide or receive.

These reports are subject to technical expert review, and there is a process of facilitative, multilateral consideration of progress, where countries discuss each other’s efforts. The aim is not punishment, but mutual learning, confidence building, and gentle pressure to improve. Over time, reporting requirements are being harmonized while still providing flexibility for countries with limited capacities.

Every five years, starting in 2023, there is a global stocktake. This is a collective assessment of progress toward the long term goals of the Paris Agreement. It looks at mitigation, adaptation, and means of implementation and support. The findings of the global stocktake are intended to inform the next round of NDCs, encouraging countries to close the gap between current trajectories and the temperature goals.

Climate Finance, Technology, And Capacity Building

International climate agreements are not only about targets. They also include arrangements for support, particularly from wealthier countries to those with fewer resources. Under the UNFCCC and reinforced by the Paris Agreement, developed countries committed to mobilize climate finance to help developing countries both reduce emissions and adapt to climate impacts.

A key political benchmark has been the goal by developed countries to mobilize 100 billion US dollars per year in climate finance. Although this number is not framed as a strict legal obligation for each country, it has become a symbol of trust and fairness in the negotiations. Various funds operate under the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement, including the Green Climate Fund, the Global Environment Facility, and the Adaptation Fund, channeling resources for projects and programs.

Technology development and transfer are also recognized as central. Mechanisms and institutions support cooperation on low carbon and climate resilient technologies, while capacity building initiatives help countries develop skills, institutions, and planning tools needed for effective climate action. These elements reflect the view that global goals can only be met if all countries have the means to act, not only the obligation.

Loss And Damage And Climate Justice Concerns

As climate impacts intensify, especially in highly vulnerable regions, debates within international climate negotiations have increasingly focused on loss and damage. This term refers to climate related harm that cannot be avoided through mitigation or adaptation, for example the loss of land due to sea level rise or irreversible damage to ecosystems and cultural heritage.

Small island states and many developing countries have pushed for recognition that they are suffering impacts that they did little to cause. Over time, the UNFCCC process has created institutional arrangements to address loss and damage, including a dedicated mechanism and, more recently, the decision to establish financing arrangements and a fund related to loss and damage. The details of how this support will be organized, funded, and governed are still being negotiated, but its inclusion in the international framework marks an important shift toward acknowledging climate related harms and issues of responsibility.

These discussions are closely connected to broader questions of climate justice and equity. They highlight differences in historical emissions, present vulnerabilities, and economic capabilities, and they influence how ambitious and acceptable different international agreements appear to various groups of countries.

Other Multilateral Agreements Relevant To Climate

While the UNFCCC, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement are central, other international agreements also influence climate outcomes. One example is the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, an earlier environmental treaty that successfully phased out many ozone depleting chemicals. Some of these substances and their replacements are also potent greenhouse gases. The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal Protocol established a global phase down of hydrofluorocarbons, which contributes significantly to limiting climate change.

Agreements on aviation and shipping, which are often handled through specialized international organizations, play a role in tackling emissions from these sectors. Regional agreements and partnerships can also complement global efforts, for example by coordinating carbon markets or setting shared standards for renewable energy.

Limitations And Challenges Of International Climate Agreements

International climate agreements operate in a complex political and economic environment. They rely mainly on cooperation, peer pressure, and domestic implementation, rather than on strong centralized enforcement. This means that ambition and follow through can vary significantly across countries.

Under the Paris model, NDCs are voluntary in their design, and while there are legal obligations to submit and report, there is no global authority that directly penalizes countries that miss their targets. As a result, the combined effect of current NDCs is still not sufficient to meet the agreed temperature limits. There is a persistent gap between what science indicates is necessary and what governments currently pledge.

Other challenges include unequal negotiating power among countries, shifting political priorities within nations, and tensions between short term economic interests and long term climate goals. Some countries face strong domestic opposition from sectors that depend on fossil fuels, while others struggle with limited administrative capacity and pressing development needs.

Despite these limitations, the existence of shared goals, common reporting rules, and regular negotiation cycles has shaped national policies and public expectations. International agreements provide signals to markets and investors and create a framework in which other actors, such as cities, regions, and businesses, can align their own climate initiatives.

The Evolving Role Of International Agreements In Climate Action

International climate agreements are not static. They evolve through annual COP decisions, updated guidance, and new institutional arrangements. The focus has gradually broadened from purely emission reduction targets to a more comprehensive view that includes adaptation, resilience, finance, technology, capacity building, and loss and damage.

Over time, the Paris Agreement is intended to create a cycle of increasing ambition. Scientific assessments inform global stocktakes, which in turn influence domestic debates and the next round of NDCs. As renewable energy technologies become cheaper and more widely adopted, what is considered feasible also changes, potentially enabling stronger commitments.

International agreements also serve as a reference point for domestic laws and court cases. Some countries have used the goals of the Paris Agreement to justify stronger national climate legislation or to support legal actions that push governments and companies toward more robust climate policies.

By understanding how these agreements work, who they involve, and what mechanisms they use, it becomes easier to see how global decisions connect to local energy choices, including the development and deployment of renewable energy. In the broader context of sustainability and climate action, international climate agreements set the shared direction of travel, even though much of the real work happens at national and subnational levels.