2.8 National And Local Climate Policies

Introduction

National and local climate policies translate global climate goals into concrete actions where people live, work, and use energy. While international agreements set the direction, it is countries, regions, provinces, states, and cities that actually design and implement many of the measures that cut emissions and prepare societies for climate impacts. This chapter focuses on how climate policy works at the national and subnational levels, what types of instruments are commonly used, and how these layers of governance interact.

The Role of National Governments in Climate Policy

National governments are usually responsible for setting overall climate ambition and building the legal framework that guides action across the economy. They decide long term goals, define responsibilities among sectors such as energy, transport, buildings, agriculture, and industry, and often control major financial and regulatory tools.

Many countries adopt framework climate laws that set overarching targets, such as reaching net zero greenhouse gas emissions by a certain year. These laws can specify interim milestones, assign duties to ministries, require the preparation of climate plans, and create institutions for monitoring progress. In some cases, these targets are legally binding, which means governments can be challenged if they fail to act.

National governments also develop sectoral policies that align with climate goals. For example, they may reform electricity market rules to favor low carbon generation, set vehicle emission standards, or update building codes to improve energy efficiency. In many systems, national authorities regulate large infrastructure like transmission grids, major power plants, highways, and heavy industry, so their decisions strongly shape the energy and emissions profile of a country.

Linking National Policies to International Commitments

National climate policy does not exist in isolation. Under international agreements, especially the Paris Agreement, countries submit nationally determined contributions, often called NDCs, that outline their planned emission reductions and adaptation efforts. National policies are the main way these commitments are delivered.

Typically, governments translate NDC targets into domestic strategies and plans. Examples include national climate strategies, long term low emission development strategies, and national adaptation plans. These documents guide concrete policies such as new regulations, financial programs, or infrastructure investments.

There is a continuous cycle between international commitments and national policy. When countries strengthen their NDCs, they are expected to raise domestic ambition. At the same time, successful national policies can give governments confidence to submit more ambitious NDCs in future rounds. Transparent reporting and review processes, often required under international rules, put pressure on governments to back up their promises with real actions.

National Mitigation Policies

Mitigation policies focus on reducing greenhouse gas emissions or enhancing sinks like forests. At the national level, governments use a combination of regulatory, economic, and informational instruments to influence how energy is produced and used, how land is managed, and how industry operates.

Regulatory measures include standards and limits. Examples are fuel economy standards for vehicles, performance standards for power plants, efficiency standards for appliances, and mandatory building codes that require insulation or minimum efficiency levels for heating and cooling systems. These rules often target manufacturers or developers, but they change what is available to consumers and how new infrastructure is built.

Economic instruments influence behavior through prices and financial incentives. Carbon pricing schemes, such as carbon taxes or emissions trading systems, put a cost on emitting greenhouse gases. Subsidies or tax incentives can support renewable energy projects, building retrofits, or low carbon industrial technologies. Governments may also remove or reduce subsidies for fossil fuels, which can significantly alter investment decisions.

Informational and voluntary approaches play a supporting role. These include labeling schemes for appliances and buildings, national campaigns to promote energy saving, and voluntary agreements with industries to improve efficiency. While they are often less visible than taxes or regulations, they can help shift norms and expectations across society and prepare the ground for stricter measures later.

National Adaptation Policies

Adaptation policies help societies cope with the climate impacts that are already occurring or are expected in the future. At the national level, governments coordinate risk assessments, prioritise sectors and regions that need protection, and allocate resources for resilience.

Many countries prepare national adaptation plans that identify vulnerabilities in areas such as water, agriculture, health, transport, and energy systems. These plans may include measures like updating design standards for infrastructure so that roads, bridges, and power lines can withstand stronger storms or higher temperatures, improving early warning systems for floods and heatwaves, or revising agricultural practices to suit changing rainfall patterns.

National governments also coordinate disaster risk management, emergency response frameworks, and insurance schemes. They may invest in large scale protective infrastructure such as coastal defenses or river flood control systems. Crucially, adaptation policy often involves integrating climate considerations into all major planning decisions, for example in land use planning, economic development strategies, and infrastructure investment programs.

Policy Instruments Commonly Used by Nations

Although details vary from country to country, some families of instruments appear repeatedly in national climate policy.

Regulations are one central tool. These can include emission performance standards that limit how much greenhouse gas a power plant or industrial facility can emit per unit of output, renewable energy obligations that require utilities to supply a minimum share of electricity from renewable sources, and phase out schedules for high global warming potential gases in refrigeration and air conditioning.

Pricing instruments, particularly carbon taxes and emissions trading systems, try to incorporate the social cost of carbon into economic decisions. A carbon tax sets a price per tonne of carbon dioxide equivalent emitted. An emissions trading system sets a cap on total emissions, issues allowances up to that cap, and allows trading among emitters. Both approaches encourage companies and consumers to choose lower carbon options whenever possible.

Financial support policies help overcome investment barriers and cost gaps for climate friendly technologies. These can include low interest loans, loan guarantees, grants for research and development, and feed in tariffs or premiums that pay renewable energy producers a stable price per unit of electricity.

Information and planning instruments are also essential. Mandatory climate related financial disclosure rules require large companies or financial institutions to report their climate risks and emissions, which can shift investment decisions. National inventories of greenhouse gas emissions and regular progress reports provide the data needed to evaluate and adjust policies over time.

The Importance of Local and Regional Governments

Local and regional governments, which can include cities, municipalities, provinces, and states, are critical actors because many climate relevant decisions are made at these levels. Urban planning, local transport, building permits, and municipal services are usually under subnational control, and these areas strongly influence energy use and emissions.

Cities often set their own climate goals, sometimes more ambitious than national targets. They can commit to climate neutrality, adopt local climate action plans, and join international city networks that share knowledge and tools. At the same time, regional governments can design programs that address particular geographic or economic conditions, for example regions that rely heavily on coal mining or have specific vulnerability to sea level rise.

Local authorities are close to citizens and businesses, which makes them well placed to implement practical measures, engage communities, and adjust policies based on local feedback. This proximity can speed up innovation and experimentation, since cities and regions can pilot new approaches that might later be adopted nationally.

Local Mitigation Actions

Mitigation at the local level focuses heavily on how cities and communities are built and operated. Local governments influence land use, transport systems, buildings, and local energy infrastructure, all of which determine day to day emissions.

In urban planning, local policies can encourage compact, mixed use development where homes, workplaces, and services are closer together. This reduces the need for long car trips and makes public transport, walking, and cycling more practical. Zoning rules can prioritize transit oriented development around rail and bus corridors, support green spaces, and discourage expansion into high risk or ecologically sensitive areas.

Building related policies are another important area. Local authorities often control building permits and inspections. They can enforce or go beyond national building codes, require energy performance standards for new buildings, and promote renovation programs for existing structures. Some cities offer local grants or technical support for rooftop solar, heat pumps, or insulation upgrades, which directly reduces local energy use and emissions.

Municipalities also make decisions about local transport and fleets. They can invest in public transport options, create cycling infrastructure, operate electric buses, and manage municipal fleets with cleaner vehicles. In some cases, cities introduce low emission zones or congestion charges to reduce traffic emissions in central areas.

Waste management and local energy services play a role as well. Policies that promote recycling, composting, and methane capture from landfills can cut emissions from waste. Local utilities or cooperatives can develop district heating and cooling networks, municipal solar and wind projects, and community energy schemes.

Local Adaptation and Resilience

Adaptation is strongly tied to local conditions, so cities and regions have a central role in preparing for climate impacts. They experience specific risks, such as heatwaves in dense urban areas, flooding in coastal or riverine locations, or droughts in certain rural regions. Local governments can translate national adaptation strategies into detailed, context specific actions.

Local adaptation plans often start with risk mapping to identify vulnerable neighborhoods, critical infrastructure, and essential services such as hospitals, schools, and power substations. Based on this, cities can prioritize measures such as improving drainage systems, protecting or restoring wetlands, reinforcing buildings, and adjusting land use to keep high risk areas free from new development.

Urban design plays a major role in climate resilience. Local policies can support green infrastructure like parks, street trees, green roofs, and permeable surfaces. These elements reduce urban heat island effects, absorb stormwater, and enhance quality of life. Coastal and river cities may develop nature based defenses such as dunes and wetlands, combined with engineered infrastructure, to reduce flood risk.

Local authorities also manage emergency preparedness and response plans for extreme events. They can improve early warning systems, designate cooling centers for heatwaves, and coordinate with utilities to protect energy infrastructure. In addition, they can work with communities to build social resilience, for example by supporting neighborhood level preparedness networks and outreach for vulnerable populations.

Coordination Between National and Local Levels

Because climate policy involves many sectors and scales, coordination across government levels is essential. National policies often set overall goals and basic rules, while local authorities adapt implementation to their context. When this coordination works well, it creates a consistent and supportive environment for effective action. When it fails, it can result in conflicting rules, duplication, or gaps.

Vertical coordination refers to alignment between national, regional, and local governments. National governments can provide technical guidance, funding, data, and legal frameworks that empower cities and regions. In return, local authorities can supply detailed information about what works on the ground and about barriers that may not be visible at the national level. Mechanisms such as intergovernmental forums, regular consultations, and joint planning processes help build this alignment.

Horizontal coordination is also important. Different ministries, agencies, or departments within each level of government need to work together. For instance, climate goals must be reflected not only in environment ministries, but also in energy, transport, housing, finance, and agriculture. Likewise, within a city, departments responsible for planning, transport, housing, and public works must align their decisions with climate objectives.

Funding structures often shape coordination. If national funding programs require local climate plans as a condition for support, they can motivate local governments to take action while ensuring that actions are consistent with national strategy. Conversely, local innovation can inform national programs, which then scale up successful approaches to other regions.

Challenges and Opportunities in Implementing Policies

Implementing climate policies at national and local levels faces several recurring challenges. Political cycles, short term economic concerns, and opposition from affected industries can slow or weaken measures. Limited administrative capacity and financial resources, especially in low income regions and smaller municipalities, can make it difficult to design, enforce, and monitor policies. In some cases, legal conflicts between levels of government create uncertainty.

At the same time, there are significant opportunities. Technological progress, falling costs of renewables, and growing public awareness have made ambitious climate policies more feasible. Many cities and regions use climate action as a driver of local economic development, job creation, and improved air quality. National programs that support training and capacity building can help local governments design stronger plans and involve citizens more effectively.

Public participation is critical at all levels, especially locally. Engaging communities in the design of climate policies and projects can increase acceptance, identify local needs, and improve outcomes. For example, involving residents in decisions about new renewable energy projects or changes to street layouts can reduce conflicts and generate useful ideas for implementation.

The Connection to Renewable Energy Deployment

National and local climate policies have a direct influence on how quickly renewable energy spreads and how it is integrated into energy systems. National strategies often set renewable energy targets, reform electricity markets, and provide financial incentives that make large scale deployment possible. Local policies determine where renewable installations can be built, how buildings connect to them, and how communities benefit.

For instance, national feed in tariffs or auctions can drive investment in large wind and solar projects, while local zoning and permitting rules decide which sites are acceptable and how impacts are managed. National building codes encourage or require energy efficient construction, while local enforcement makes sure these standards are applied in practice. In addition, local authorities can promote small scale, distributed renewable systems such as rooftop solar, district energy networks, and community owned projects.

By aligning climate objectives with renewable energy policies at both national and local levels, governments can support a smoother transition away from fossil fuels. This alignment can also help ensure that the benefits of renewables, such as cleaner air, new jobs, and greater energy security, are shared widely across different regions and communities.