Biology

Where to Move

Move chapter:

• ☰ 1. Biology as the Science of Living Organisms
  • ☰ 1.1. The Biological Age
    • ☰ 1.1.1. Biology Determines Our Lives
    • ☰ 1.1.2. Characteristics of Living Things
    • ☰ 1.1.3. Organization of the Living
  • ☰ 1.2. The Development of Biology as a Science
    • ☰ 1.2.1. Beginnings in Antiquity
    • ☰ 1.2.2. A New Beginning in the Renaissance
    • ☰ 1.2.3. The Enlightenment
    • ☰ 1.2.4. Recording Biological Diversity
    • ☰ 1.2.5. Vitalism and Mechanism
    • ☰ 1.2.6. Evolutionary Theory and Its Consequences
    • ☰ 1.2.7. Molecular Foundations
    • ☰ 1.2.8. Global Interrelationships and the Gaia Hypothesis
  • ☰ 1.3. Biological Sciences
    • ☰ 1.3.1. Subdisciplines of the Biological Sciences
    • ☰ 1.3.2. Ways of Thinking and Working in Biology
      • ☰ 1.3.2.1. Searching for, Evaluating, Processing, and Presenting Information
      • ☰ 1.3.2.2. Induction and Deduction
    • ☰ 1.3.3. Relationships to Other Natural Sciences
    • ☰ 1.3.4. Relationships to the Humanities
    • ☰ 1.3.5. Interdisciplinary Fields
• ☰ 2. Basic Building Blocks of Life
  • ☰ 2.1. Carbon as the Element of Life
    • ☰ 2.1.1. The Periodic Table of the Elements
      • ☰ 2.1.1.1. Types of Chemical Bonds
    • ☰ 2.1.2. Carbon as an Element
    • ☰ 2.1.3. Possible Carbon Compounds
  • ☰ 2.2. Water as the Medium of Life
    • ☰ 2.2.1. Properties of Water
    • ☰ 2.2.2. Autoprotolysis of Water
  • ☰ 2.3. Macromolecules
    • ☰ 2.3.1. Proteins and Their Structure
    • ☰ 2.3.2. Carbohydrates
      • ☰ 2.3.2.1. Monosaccharides
      • ☰ 2.3.2.2. Disaccharides
      • ☰ 2.3.2.3. Polysaccharides
    • ☰ 2.3.3. Lipids
    • ☰ 2.3.4. Nucleic Acids
    • ☰ 2.3.5. Other Important Molecules
      • ☰ 2.3.5.1. Pyrrole Compounds
      • ☰ 2.3.5.2. Terpenes – Isoprenoids
  • ☰ 2.4. Cells and Cell Components
    • ☰ 2.4.1. The Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
    • ☰ 2.4.2. Basic Structures: Membrane, Fibril, Granum
    • ☰ 2.4.3. The Prokaryotic Cell (Procyte)
    • ☰ 2.4.4. The Eukaryotic Cell (Eucyte): The Cell of Eukaryotes
    • ☰ 2.4.5. Viruses, Viroids, and Prions
  • ☰ 2.5. From Cells to Tissues and Organs
    • ☰ 2.5.1. Nuclear and Cell Division
    • ☰ 2.5.2. Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
• ☰ 3. Metabolism and Energy Conversion
  • ☰ 3.1. Energy Conversion in Metabolic Processes
    • ☰ 3.1.1. Metabolic Pathways
    • ☰ 3.1.2. Organisms Live on Free Energy
      • ☰ 3.1.2.1. Thermodynamic Equilibrium and Free Energy
      • ☰ 3.1.2.2. Steady State
    • ☰ 3.1.3. ATP: Energy Carrier in Cells or Organisms
      • ☰ 3.1.3.1. ATP Regeneration
    • ☰ 3.1.4. Determining Energy Conversion
      • ☰ 3.1.4.1. Metabolic Rate
      • ☰ 3.1.4.2. Direct Calorimetry
      • ☰ 3.1.4.3. Indirect Calorimetry (Respirometry)
      • ☰ 3.1.4.4. Basal Metabolic Rate and Performance Metabolism
  • ☰ 3.2. Enzymes as Catalysts in the Organism
    • ☰ 3.2.1. Course of Enzymatic Reactions
    • ☰ 3.2.2. Structure and Function of Enzymes
    • ☰ 3.2.3. Enzyme Activity
      • ☰ 3.2.3.1. Influence of Temperature
      • ☰ 3.2.3.2. Influence of pH
      • ☰ 3.2.3.3. Concentration
      • ☰ 3.2.3.4. Enzyme Regulation
      • ☰ 3.2.3.5. Importance of Enzymes
  • ☰ 3.3. Anabolic Metabolism
    • ☰ 3.3.1. Photosynthesis
      • ☰ 3.3.1.1. Location of Photosynthesis: Fine Structure of Chloroplasts
      • ☰ 3.3.1.2. Structure of the Photosystems
      • ☰ 3.3.1.3. Process of Photosynthesis: Light-Dependent Reactions
      • ☰ 3.3.1.4. Light-Independent Reactions (Dark Reaction, Calvin Cycle)
      • ☰ 3.3.1.5. Sequence of the Light-Dependent Reactions
      • ☰ 3.3.1.6. Factors Influencing Photosynthesis
    • ☰ 3.3.2. Chemolithoautotrophy (Chemosynthesis)
    • ☰ 3.3.3. Storage of Chemical Energy
  • ☰ 3.4. Catabolic Metabolism
    • ☰ 3.4.1. Cellular Respiration
      • ☰ 3.4.1.1. Glycolysis
      • ☰ 3.4.1.2. Transport of Pyruvate and Formation of Acetyl-CoA
      • ☰ 3.4.1.3. Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
      • ☰ 3.4.1.4. Electron Transport Chain
    • ☰ 3.4.2. Fermentation as Energy Release Without Oxygen
  • ☰ 3.5. Transport Processes in Plants
    • ☰ 3.5.1. Basic Components of the Plant
    • ☰ 3.5.2. Uptake of Water and Mineral Salts
    • ☰ 3.5.3. Water and Ion Transport in the Stem
    • ☰ 3.5.4. Regulation of Transpiration
    • ☰ 3.5.5. Transport of Organic Substances
  • ☰ 3.6. Digestion, Respiration, and Transport in Animals
    • ☰ 3.6.1. Respiration and Respiratory Organs
    • ☰ 3.6.2. Heart and Circulatory System
      • ☰ 3.6.2.1. Gas Exchange in Lungs and Tissues
      • ☰ 3.6.2.2. Transport of Carbon Dioxide
    • ☰ 3.6.3. Excretory Organs and Excretion
      • ☰ 3.6.3.1. Structure and Function of the Human Kidney
      • ☰ 3.6.3.2. Formation of Urine in the Nephron
• ☰ 4. Control, Regulation, and Information Processing
  • ☰ 4.1. Excitation and Conduction
    • ☰ 4.1.1. Biological Basics
    • ☰ 4.1.2. Excitability and Response in Algae and Plants
    • ☰ 4.1.3. Excitability of Animal Cells
    • ☰ 4.1.4. Conduction of Excitation
    • ☰ 4.1.5. Transmission of Excitation Between Excitable Cells
    • ☰ 4.1.6. From Stimulus Reception to Response
  • ☰ 4.2. Sense Organs
    • ☰ 4.2.1. Mediators Between Organism and Environment
    • ☰ 4.2.2. Visual Sense
    • ☰ 4.2.3. Hearing Sense
    • ☰ 4.2.4. Sense of Balance
    • ☰ 4.2.5. Skin Senses
    • ☰ 4.2.6. Chemical Sense
    • ☰ 4.2.7. Electrical Sense and Magnetic Sense
  • ☰ 4.3. Information Processing and Storage
    • ☰ 4.3.1. Nervous Systems of Invertebrates
    • ☰ 4.3.2. Nervous Systems of Vertebrates
    • ☰ 4.3.3. Memory, Language, Consciousness
    • ☰ 4.3.4. Sleep
    • ☰ 4.3.5. Psychoactive Substances and Neurotoxins
    • ☰ 4.3.6. Muscles and Movement
    • ☰ 4.3.7. Function of Muscle Cells
    • ☰ 4.3.8. Muscle Movement
  • ☰ 4.4. Hormones
    • ☰ 4.4.1. The Endocrine System of Vertebrates and Humans
      • ☰ 4.4.1.1. Classification of Hormones
    • ☰ 4.4.2. Coupling of Nervous and Endocrine Systems
    • ☰ 4.4.3. The Endocrine System of Invertebrates
    • ☰ 4.4.4. Plant Hormones
    • ☰ 4.4.5. Pheromones
• ☰ 5. Reproduction, Growth, Development
  • ☰ 5.1. Reproduction
    • ☰ 5.1.1. Reproduction and Nutrition
    • ☰ 5.1.2. Asexual Reproduction
    • ☰ 5.1.3. Sexual Reproduction
  • ☰ 5.2. Lower Organisms
    • ☰ 5.2.1. Prokaryotes
    • ☰ 5.2.2. Protists
    • ☰ 5.2.3. Fungi
  • ☰ 5.3. Plants
    • ☰ 5.3.1. Growth and Differentiation
    • ☰ 5.3.2. Reproduction Techniques
  • ☰ 5.4. Animals and Humans
    • ☰ 5.4.1. Embryonic Development in Animals
    • ☰ 5.4.2. Embryonic Development in Humans
    • ☰ 5.4.3. Developmental Disorders and Reproductive Technologies
• ☰ 6. Genetics
  • ☰ 6.1. Molecular Foundations of Heredity
    • ☰ 6.1.1. Nucleic Acids as Carriers of Genetic Information
      • ☰ 6.1.1.1. Structure of DNA
      • ☰ 6.1.1.2. Genetic Code
      • ☰ 6.1.1.3. Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
    • ☰ 6.1.2. Identical Replicators
    • ☰ 6.1.3. From Gene to Protein
      • ☰ 6.1.3.1. Protein Biosynthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
    • ☰ 6.1.4. Regulation of Gene Activity
      • ☰ 6.1.4.1. Transcriptional Control in Prokaryotes
      • ☰ 6.1.4.2. Regulation of Gene Activity in Eukaryotes
    • ☰ 6.1.5. Modification
      • ☰ 6.1.5.1. Continuous Variation
      • ☰ 6.1.5.2. Discontinuous Variation
      • ☰ 6.1.5.3. Modificatory (Phenotypic) Sex Determination
    • ☰ 6.1.6. Mutation
      • ☰ 6.1.6.1. Causes of Mutations
      • ☰ 6.1.6.2. Types of Mutations
  • ☰ 6.2. Inheritance Rules and Their Applications
    • ☰ 6.2.1. Mendelian Laws of Inheritance
      • ☰ 6.2.1.1. Mendel’s Crossbreeding Experiments
      • ☰ 6.2.1.2. Dominant – Recessive – Intermediate
      • ☰ 6.2.1.3. Mendelian Terminology
    • ☰ 6.2.2. Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
      • ☰ 6.2.2.1. Gene Linkage
    • ☰ 6.2.3. Inheritance in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.3.1. Genotypic Sex Determination in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.3.2. Barr Body and Lyon Hypothesis
    • ☰ 6.2.4. Gene Mutations in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.4.1. X-linked Recessive Genetic Disorders
      • ☰ 6.2.4.2. Autosomal Genetic Disorders
    • ☰ 6.2.5. Chromosomal Aberrations in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.5.1. Sex Chromosome Aberrations in Humans
  • ☰ 6.3. Genetic Engineering
    • ☰ 6.3.1. Basics of Genetic Engineering
      • ☰ 6.3.1.1. Selected Aspects of Viral and Bacterial Genetics
      • ☰ 6.3.1.2. Bacteriophages
      • ☰ 6.3.1.3. Retroviruses Contradict the Central Dogma
      • ☰ 6.3.1.4. Bacteria
    • ☰ 6.3.2. Methods of Investigation
      • ☰ 6.3.2.1. Restriction Enzymes and Ligases
      • ☰ 6.3.2.2. Gel Electrophoresis
      • ☰ 6.3.2.3. Hybridization
      • ☰ 6.3.2.4. Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
      • ☰ 6.3.2.5. DNA Sequencing
      • ☰ 6.3.2.6. Transfer of Foreign Genetic Material
    • ☰ 6.3.3. Applications of Genetics
    • ☰ 6.3.4. Gene Mapping
    • ☰ 6.3.5. Gene Therapy
• ☰ 7. Disease and Health
  • ☰ 7.1. Terms and Definitions
    • ☰ 7.1.1. Health
    • ☰ 7.1.2. Disease
  • ☰ 7.2. Infectious Diseases in Humans
    • ☰ 7.2.1. Transmission and Course of Infectious Diseases
    • ☰ 7.2.2. Subviral Structures as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.2.1. Viroids
      • ☰ 7.2.2.2. Prions
    • ☰ 7.2.3. Viruses as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.3.1. Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
    • ☰ 7.2.4. Bacteria as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.4.1. Plague Pathogen
      • ☰ 7.2.4.2. Salmonella
    • ☰ 7.2.5. Fungi as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.5.1. Yeasts
      • ☰ 7.2.5.2. Dermatophytes
    • ☰ 7.2.6. Protists as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.6.1. Malaria Pathogen
    • ☰ 7.2.7. Animals as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.7.1. Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
      • ☰ 7.2.7.2. Mites as Agents of Scabies
  • ☰ 7.3. Immunobiology
    • ☰ 7.3.1. Nonspecific Immune Response
      • ☰ 7.3.1.1. Passive Resistance: General Defense
      • ☰ 7.3.1.2. Active Resistance
    • ☰ 7.3.2. Specific Immune Response
      • ☰ 7.3.2.1. Antibodies
    • ☰ 7.3.3. Active and Passive Immunization
      • ☰ 7.3.3.1. Active Immunization
      • ☰ 7.3.3.2. Passive Immunization
    • ☰ 7.3.4. Autoimmune Diseases
    • ☰ 7.3.5. Allergies
      • ☰ 7.3.5.1. Type I Allergies: Immediate Type
      • ☰ 7.3.5.2. Prophylaxis and Therapy of Allergies
  • ☰ 7.4. Plant Defense Systems
    • ☰ 7.4.1. Defense Mechanisms of Plants
    • ☰ 7.4.2. Economic Applications
• ☰ 8. Evolution and Biological Diversity
  • ☰ 8.1. History of Evolutionary Thought
    • ☰ 8.1.1. Evolutionary Theories Through Time
      • ☰ 8.1.1.1. Creation Myths
      • ☰ 8.1.1.2. Ancient Natural Philosophy
      • ☰ 8.1.1.3. Early Scientific Approaches to Descent
      • ☰ 8.1.1.4. Mechanism and Vitalism
      • ☰ 8.1.1.5. Pioneers of Scientific Evolutionary Theory
      • ☰ 8.1.1.6. Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
      • ☰ 8.1.1.7. Comparison of Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theories
    • ☰ 8.1.2. Ideas on the Origin of Life
      • ☰ 8.1.2.1. The “RNA World”
      • ☰ 8.1.2.2. The Hypercycle Model
      • ☰ 8.1.2.3. Extraterrestrial Origin of Life
  • ☰ 8.2. Evidence for the Evolution of Organisms
    • ☰ 8.2.1. Common Origin of All Living Things
    • ☰ 8.2.2. Fossils as Evidence for Evolution
      • ☰ 8.2.2.1. General Findings from the Fossil Record
    • ☰ 8.2.3. Transitional Forms
    • ☰ 8.2.4. Evidence from Ontogeny
    • ☰ 8.2.5. Homology and Analogy
      • ☰ 8.2.5.1. Criterion of Position
      • ☰ 8.2.5.2. Criterion of Specific Quality
      • ☰ 8.2.5.3. Criterion of Intermediate Forms (Continuity)
    • ☰ 8.2.6. Rudimentary Organs and Atavisms
  • ☰ 8.3. Evolutionary Factors and Their Effects
    • ☰ 8.3.1. The Synthetic Theory of Evolution
      • ☰ 8.3.1.1. Mutation and Recombination
      • ☰ 8.3.1.2. Adaptive Selection
      • ☰ 8.3.1.3. Genetic Drift
      • ☰ 8.3.1.4. Isolation and Speciation
    • ☰ 8.3.2. Further Developments and Alternative Theories
  • ☰ 8.4. Symbiogenesis
    • ☰ 8.4.1. Life Means Living Together
    • ☰ 8.4.2. Competition – Symbiosis – Commensalism – Antibiosis
    • ☰ 8.4.3. Origin of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes (Endosymbiotic Theory)
  • ☰ 8.5. Phylogeny and the Diversity of Life
    • ☰ 8.5.1. Patterns of Evolution
    • ☰ 8.5.2. Phylogenetic Research
  • ☰ 8.6. Human Evolution
    • ☰ 8.6.1. Relationships Among Primates
      • ☰ 8.6.1.1. The Position of Humans in the Natural System
    • ☰ 8.6.2. Human Fossil Record
    • ☰ 8.6.3. Do Human Races Exist?
      • ☰ 8.6.3.1. Origin of Modern Humans
    • ☰ 8.6.4. Cognitive and Cultural Evolution
  • ☰ 8.7. Classification of Diversity (Systematics)
    • ☰ 8.7.1. Domain Archaea
    • ☰ 8.7.2. Domain Bacteria
    • ☰ 8.7.3. Domain Eukarya
      • ☰ 8.7.3.1. 1st Kingdom: Protista
      • ☰ 8.7.3.2. 2nd Kingdom: Plantae
      • ☰ 8.7.3.3. 3rd Kingdom: Fungi
      • ☰ 8.7.3.4. 4th Kingdom: Animalia
• ☰ 9. Behavioral Biology
  • ☰ 9.1. Goals and Methods of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ 9.1.1. Subfields of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ 9.1.2. Goals of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ 9.1.3. Methods of Behavior Recording and Analysis
    • ☰ 9.1.4. Applied Behavioral Research
  • ☰ 9.2. Development of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.2.1. Ontogeny and Individual Development of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.2.2. Behavior of Juvenile Animals
  • ☰ 9.3. Mechanisms of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.3.1. Coordination of Movements
    • ☰ 9.3.2. Innate Behavior
    • ☰ 9.3.3. Learned Behavior
  • ☰ 9.4. Adaptiveness of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.4.1. Adaptation Strategies
    • ☰ 9.4.2. Communication
    • ☰ 9.4.3. Social Structures and Forms of Organization
    • ☰ 9.4.4. Conflict Behavior
    • ☰ 9.4.5. Reproductive Behavior and Parental Care
    • ☰ 9.4.6. The Special Status of Humans – An Outdated Concept?
• ☰ 10. Ecology
  • ☰ 10.1. Organisms in Their Environment
    • ☰ 10.1.1. Tolerance Range and Ecological Potency
    • ☰ 10.1.2. Abiotic Environmental Factors
      • ☰ 10.1.2.1. Influence of Water
      • ☰ 10.1.2.2. Influence of Light
      • ☰ 10.1.2.3. Influence of Mechanical Factors
      • ☰ 10.1.2.4. Influence of Soil Factors
    • ☰ 10.1.3. Biotic Environmental Factors
  • ☰ 10.2. Structure of the Biosphere
    • ☰ 10.2.1. Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles
      • ☰ 10.2.1.1. Carbon Cycle
      • ☰ 10.2.1.2. Nitrogen Cycle
      • ☰ 10.2.1.3. Phosphorus Cycle
      • ☰ 10.2.1.4. Sulfur Cycle
    • ☰ 10.2.2. Ecosystems
    • ☰ 10.2.3. Zonation of the Biosphere
      • ☰ 10.2.3.1. Orobiomes – Mountain Ecosystems
      • ☰ 10.2.3.2. Azonal Biomes
    • ☰ 10.2.4. Development and Change of Ecosystems
    • ☰ 10.2.5. Forest Ecosystem
    • ☰ 10.2.6. Lake Ecosystem
  • ☰ 10.3. Population Ecology
    • ☰ 10.3.1. Growth and Development of a Population
    • ☰ 10.3.2. Age Structure of Populations
    • ☰ 10.3.3. Regulation of Population Density
  • ☰ 10.4. Humans and the Biosphere
    • ☰ 10.4.1. Development of the World Population
    • ☰ 10.4.2. Resources and Management of Land and Seas
    • ☰ 10.4.3. Pollution of Air, Water, Soil
      • ☰ 10.4.3.1. Air
      • ☰ 10.4.3.2. Water
      • ☰ 10.4.3.3. Soil
    • ☰ 10.4.4. Waste and Recycling
  • ☰ 10.5. Nature and Environmental Protection
    • ☰ 10.5.1. Why Protect Nature and the Environment?
    • ☰ 10.5.2. Decline of Biological Diversity
      • ☰ 10.5.2.1. Climate Change
    • ☰ 10.5.3. Laws and Measures
      • ☰ 10.5.3.1. International Efforts
      • ☰ 10.5.3.2. Legislation
      • ☰ 10.5.3.3. Protected Areas