Biology

☰ 1 Biology as the Science of Living Organisms

☰ 1.1 The Biological Age
- ☰ 1.1.1 Biology Determines Our Lives
- ☰ 1.1.2 Characteristics of Living Things
- ☰ 1.1.3 Organization of the Living
☰ 1.2 The Development of Biology as a Science
- ☰ 1.2.1 Beginnings in Antiquity
- ☰ 1.2.2 A New Beginning in the Renaissance
- ☰ 1.2.3 The Enlightenment
- ☰ 1.2.4 Recording Biological Diversity
- ☰ 1.2.5 Vitalism and Mechanism
- ☰ 1.2.6 Evolutionary Theory and Its Consequences
- ☰ 1.2.7 Molecular Foundations
- ☰ 1.2.8 Global Interrelationships and the Gaia Hypothesis
☰ 1.3 Biological Sciences
- ☰ 1.3.1 Subdisciplines of the Biological Sciences
- ☰ 1.3.2 Ways of Thinking and Working in Biology
  - ☰ 1.3.2.1 Searching for, Evaluating, Processing, and Presenting Information
  - ☰ 1.3.2.2 Induction and Deduction
- ☰ 1.3.3 Relationships to Other Natural Sciences
- ☰ 1.3.4 Relationships to the Humanities
- ☰ 1.3.5 Interdisciplinary Fields

☰ 2 Basic Building Blocks of Life

☰ 2.1 Carbon as the Element of Life
- ☰ 2.1.1 The Periodic Table of the Elements
  - ☰ 2.1.1.1 Types of Chemical Bonds
- ☰ 2.1.2 Carbon as an Element
- ☰ 2.1.3 Possible Carbon Compounds
☰ 2.2 Water as the Medium of Life
- ☰ 2.2.1 Properties of Water
- ☰ 2.2.2 Autoprotolysis of Water
☰ 2.3 Macromolecules
- ☰ 2.3.1 Proteins and Their Structure
- ☰ 2.3.2 Carbohydrates
  - ☰ 2.3.2.1 Monosaccharides
  - ☰ 2.3.2.2 Disaccharides
  - ☰ 2.3.2.3 Polysaccharides
- ☰ 2.3.3 Lipids
- ☰ 2.3.4 Nucleic Acids
- ☰ 2.3.5 Other Important Molecules
  - ☰ 2.3.5.1 Pyrrole Compounds
  - ☰ 2.3.5.2 Terpenes – Isoprenoids
☰ 2.4 Cells and Cell Components
- ☰ 2.4.1 The Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
- ☰ 2.4.2 Basic Structures: Membrane, Fibril, Granum
- ☰ 2.4.3 The Prokaryotic Cell (Procyte)
- ☰ 2.4.4 The Eukaryotic Cell (Eucyte): The Cell of Eukaryotes
- ☰ 2.4.5 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions
☰ 2.5 From Cells to Tissues and Organs
- ☰ 2.5.1 Nuclear and Cell Division
- ☰ 2.5.2 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms

☰ 3 Metabolism and Energy Conversion

☰ 3.1 Energy Conversion in Metabolic Processes
- ☰ 3.1.1 Metabolic Pathways
- ☰ 3.1.2 Organisms Live on Free Energy
  - ☰ 3.1.2.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium and Free Energy
  - ☰ 3.1.2.2 Steady State
- ☰ 3.1.3 ATP: Energy Carrier in Cells or Organisms
  - ☰ 3.1.3.1 ATP Regeneration
- ☰ 3.1.4 Determining Energy Conversion
  - ☰ 3.1.4.1 Metabolic Rate
  - ☰ 3.1.4.2 Direct Calorimetry
  - ☰ 3.1.4.3 Indirect Calorimetry (Respirometry)
  - ☰ 3.1.4.4 Basal Metabolic Rate and Performance Metabolism
☰ 3.2 Enzymes as Catalysts in the Organism
- ☰ 3.2.1 Course of Enzymatic Reactions
- ☰ 3.2.2 Structure and Function of Enzymes
- ☰ 3.2.3 Enzyme Activity
  - ☰ 3.2.3.1 Influence of Temperature
  - ☰ 3.2.3.2 Influence of pH
  - ☰ 3.2.3.3 Concentration
  - ☰ 3.2.3.4 Enzyme Regulation
  - ☰ 3.2.3.5 Importance of Enzymes
☰ 3.3 Anabolic Metabolism
- ☰ 3.3.1 Photosynthesis
  - ☰ 3.3.1.1 Location of Photosynthesis: Fine Structure of Chloroplasts
  - ☰ 3.3.1.2 Structure of the Photosystems
  - ☰ 3.3.1.3 Process of Photosynthesis: Light-Dependent Reactions
  - ☰ 3.3.1.4 Light-Independent Reactions (Dark Reaction, Calvin Cycle)
  - ☰ 3.3.1.5 Sequence of the Light-Dependent Reactions
  - ☰ 3.3.1.6 Factors Influencing Photosynthesis
- ☰ 3.3.2 Chemolithoautotrophy (Chemosynthesis)
- ☰ 3.3.3 Storage of Chemical Energy
☰ 3.4 Catabolic Metabolism
- ☰ 3.4.1 Cellular Respiration
  - ☰ 3.4.1.1 Glycolysis
  - ☰ 3.4.1.2 Transport of Pyruvate and Formation of Acetyl-CoA
  - ☰ 3.4.1.3 Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
  - ☰ 3.4.1.4 Electron Transport Chain
- ☰ 3.4.2 Fermentation as Energy Release Without Oxygen
☰ 3.5 Transport Processes in Plants
- ☰ 3.5.1 Basic Components of the Plant
- ☰ 3.5.2 Uptake of Water and Mineral Salts
- ☰ 3.5.3 Water and Ion Transport in the Stem
- ☰ 3.5.4 Regulation of Transpiration
- ☰ 3.5.5 Transport of Organic Substances
☰ 3.6 Digestion, Respiration, and Transport in Animals
- ☰ 3.6.1 Respiration and Respiratory Organs
- ☰ 3.6.2 Heart and Circulatory System
  - ☰ 3.6.2.1 Gas Exchange in Lungs and Tissues
  - ☰ 3.6.2.2 Transport of Carbon Dioxide
- ☰ 3.6.3 Excretory Organs and Excretion
  - ☰ 3.6.3.1 Structure and Function of the Human Kidney
  - ☰ 3.6.3.2 Formation of Urine in the Nephron

☰ 4 Control, Regulation, and Information Processing

☰ 4.1 Excitation and Conduction
- ☰ 4.1.1 Biological Basics
- ☰ 4.1.2 Excitability and Response in Algae and Plants
- ☰ 4.1.3 Excitability of Animal Cells
- ☰ 4.1.4 Conduction of Excitation
- ☰ 4.1.5 Transmission of Excitation Between Excitable Cells
- ☰ 4.1.6 From Stimulus Reception to Response
☰ 4.2 Sense Organs
- ☰ 4.2.1 Mediators Between Organism and Environment
- ☰ 4.2.2 Visual Sense
- ☰ 4.2.3 Hearing Sense
- ☰ 4.2.4 Sense of Balance
- ☰ 4.2.5 Skin Senses
- ☰ 4.2.6 Chemical Sense
- ☰ 4.2.7 Electrical Sense and Magnetic Sense
☰ 4.3 Information Processing and Storage
- ☰ 4.3.1 Nervous Systems of Invertebrates
- ☰ 4.3.2 Nervous Systems of Vertebrates
- ☰ 4.3.3 Memory, Language, Consciousness
- ☰ 4.3.4 Sleep
- ☰ 4.3.5 Psychoactive Substances and Neurotoxins
- ☰ 4.3.6 Muscles and Movement
- ☰ 4.3.7 Function of Muscle Cells
- ☰ 4.3.8 Muscle Movement
☰ 4.4 Hormones
- ☰ 4.4.1 The Endocrine System of Vertebrates and Humans
  - ☰ 4.4.1.1 Classification of Hormones
- ☰ 4.4.2 Coupling of Nervous and Endocrine Systems
- ☰ 4.4.3 The Endocrine System of Invertebrates
- ☰ 4.4.4 Plant Hormones
- ☰ 4.4.5 Pheromones

☰ 5 Reproduction, Growth, Development

☰ 5.1 Reproduction
- ☰ 5.1.1 Reproduction and Nutrition
- ☰ 5.1.2 Asexual Reproduction
- ☰ 5.1.3 Sexual Reproduction
☰ 5.2 Lower Organisms
- ☰ 5.2.1 Prokaryotes
- ☰ 5.2.2 Protists
- ☰ 5.2.3 Fungi
☰ 5.3 Plants
- ☰ 5.3.1 Growth and Differentiation
- ☰ 5.3.2 Reproduction Techniques
☰ 5.4 Animals and Humans
- ☰ 5.4.1 Embryonic Development in Animals
- ☰ 5.4.2 Embryonic Development in Humans
- ☰ 5.4.3 Developmental Disorders and Reproductive Technologies

☰ 6 Genetics

☰ 6.1 Molecular Foundations of Heredity
- ☰ 6.1.1 Nucleic Acids as Carriers of Genetic Information
  - ☰ 6.1.1.1 Structure of DNA
  - ☰ 6.1.1.2 Genetic Code
  - ☰ 6.1.1.3 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
- ☰ 6.1.2 Identical Replicators
- ☰ 6.1.3 From Gene to Protein
  - ☰ 6.1.3.1 Protein Biosynthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
- ☰ 6.1.4 Regulation of Gene Activity
  - ☰ 6.1.4.1 Transcriptional Control in Prokaryotes
  - ☰ 6.1.4.2 Regulation of Gene Activity in Eukaryotes
- ☰ 6.1.5 Modification
  - ☰ 6.1.5.1 Continuous Variation
  - ☰ 6.1.5.2 Discontinuous Variation
  - ☰ 6.1.5.3 Modificatory (Phenotypic) Sex Determination
- ☰ 6.1.6 Mutation
  - ☰ 6.1.6.1 Causes of Mutations
  - ☰ 6.1.6.2 Types of Mutations
☰ 6.2 Inheritance Rules and Their Applications
- ☰ 6.2.1 Mendelian Laws of Inheritance
  - ☰ 6.2.1.1 Mendel’s Crossbreeding Experiments
  - ☰ 6.2.1.2 Dominant – Recessive – Intermediate
  - ☰ 6.2.1.3 Mendelian Terminology
- ☰ 6.2.2 Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
  - ☰ 6.2.2.1 Gene Linkage
- ☰ 6.2.3 Inheritance in Humans
  - ☰ 6.2.3.1 Genotypic Sex Determination in Humans
  - ☰ 6.2.3.2 Barr Body and Lyon Hypothesis
- ☰ 6.2.4 Gene Mutations in Humans
  - ☰ 6.2.4.1 X-linked Recessive Genetic Disorders
  - ☰ 6.2.4.2 Autosomal Genetic Disorders
- ☰ 6.2.5 Chromosomal Aberrations in Humans
  - ☰ 6.2.5.1 Sex Chromosome Aberrations in Humans
☰ 6.3 Genetic Engineering
- ☰ 6.3.1 Basics of Genetic Engineering
  - ☰ 6.3.1.1 Selected Aspects of Viral and Bacterial Genetics
  - ☰ 6.3.1.2 Bacteriophages
  - ☰ 6.3.1.3 Retroviruses Contradict the Central Dogma
  - ☰ 6.3.1.4 Bacteria
- ☰ 6.3.2 Methods of Investigation
  - ☰ 6.3.2.1 Restriction Enzymes and Ligases
  - ☰ 6.3.2.2 Gel Electrophoresis
  - ☰ 6.3.2.3 Hybridization
  - ☰ 6.3.2.4 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
  - ☰ 6.3.2.5 DNA Sequencing
  - ☰ 6.3.2.6 Transfer of Foreign Genetic Material
- ☰ 6.3.3 Applications of Genetics
- ☰ 6.3.4 Gene Mapping
- ☰ 6.3.5 Gene Therapy

☰ 7 Disease and Health

☰ 7.1 Terms and Definitions
- ☰ 7.1.1 Health
- ☰ 7.1.2 Disease
☰ 7.2 Infectious Diseases in Humans
- ☰ 7.2.1 Transmission and Course of Infectious Diseases
- ☰ 7.2.2 Subviral Structures as Pathogens
  - ☰ 7.2.2.1 Viroids
  - ☰ 7.2.2.2 Prions
- ☰ 7.2.3 Viruses as Pathogens
  - ☰ 7.2.3.1 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
- ☰ 7.2.4 Bacteria as Pathogens
  - ☰ 7.2.4.1 Plague Pathogen
  - ☰ 7.2.4.2 Salmonella
- ☰ 7.2.5 Fungi as Pathogens
  - ☰ 7.2.5.1 Yeasts
  - ☰ 7.2.5.2 Dermatophytes
- ☰ 7.2.6 Protists as Pathogens
  - ☰ 7.2.6.1 Malaria Pathogen
- ☰ 7.2.7 Animals as Pathogens
  - ☰ 7.2.7.1 Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
  - ☰ 7.2.7.2 Mites as Agents of Scabies
☰ 7.3 Immunobiology
- ☰ 7.3.1 Nonspecific Immune Response
  - ☰ 7.3.1.1 Passive Resistance: General Defense
  - ☰ 7.3.1.2 Active Resistance
- ☰ 7.3.2 Specific Immune Response
  - ☰ 7.3.2.1 Antibodies
- ☰ 7.3.3 Active and Passive Immunization
  - ☰ 7.3.3.1 Active Immunization
  - ☰ 7.3.3.2 Passive Immunization
- ☰ 7.3.4 Autoimmune Diseases
- ☰ 7.3.5 Allergies
  - ☰ 7.3.5.1 Type I Allergies: Immediate Type
  - ☰ 7.3.5.2 Prophylaxis and Therapy of Allergies
☰ 7.4 Plant Defense Systems
- ☰ 7.4.1 Defense Mechanisms of Plants
- ☰ 7.4.2 Economic Applications

☰ 8 Evolution and Biological Diversity

☰ 8.1 History of Evolutionary Thought
- ☰ 8.1.1 Evolutionary Theories Through Time
  - ☰ 8.1.1.1 Creation Myths
  - ☰ 8.1.1.2 Ancient Natural Philosophy
  - ☰ 8.1.1.3 Early Scientific Approaches to Descent
  - ☰ 8.1.1.4 Mechanism and Vitalism
  - ☰ 8.1.1.5 Pioneers of Scientific Evolutionary Theory
  - ☰ 8.1.1.6 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
  - ☰ 8.1.1.7 Comparison of Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theories
- ☰ 8.1.2 Ideas on the Origin of Life
  - ☰ 8.1.2.1 The “RNA World”
  - ☰ 8.1.2.2 The Hypercycle Model
  - ☰ 8.1.2.3 Extraterrestrial Origin of Life
☰ 8.2 Evidence for the Evolution of Organisms
- ☰ 8.2.1 Common Origin of All Living Things
- ☰ 8.2.2 Fossils as Evidence for Evolution
  - ☰ 8.2.2.1 General Findings from the Fossil Record
- ☰ 8.2.3 Transitional Forms
- ☰ 8.2.4 Evidence from Ontogeny
- ☰ 8.2.5 Homology and Analogy
  - ☰ 8.2.5.1 Criterion of Position
  - ☰ 8.2.5.2 Criterion of Specific Quality
  - ☰ 8.2.5.3 Criterion of Intermediate Forms (Continuity)
- ☰ 8.2.6 Rudimentary Organs and Atavisms
☰ 8.3 Evolutionary Factors and Their Effects
- ☰ 8.3.1 The Synthetic Theory of Evolution
  - ☰ 8.3.1.1 Mutation and Recombination
  - ☰ 8.3.1.2 Adaptive Selection
  - ☰ 8.3.1.3 Genetic Drift
  - ☰ 8.3.1.4 Isolation and Speciation
- ☰ 8.3.2 Further Developments and Alternative Theories
☰ 8.4 Symbiogenesis
- ☰ 8.4.1 Life Means Living Together
- ☰ 8.4.2 Competition – Symbiosis – Commensalism – Antibiosis
- ☰ 8.4.3 Origin of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes (Endosymbiotic Theory)
☰ 8.5 Phylogeny and the Diversity of Life
- ☰ 8.5.1 Patterns of Evolution
- ☰ 8.5.2 Phylogenetic Research
☰ 8.6 Human Evolution
- ☰ 8.6.1 Relationships Among Primates
  - ☰ 8.6.1.1 The Position of Humans in the Natural System
- ☰ 8.6.2 Human Fossil Record
- ☰ 8.6.3 Do Human Races Exist?
  - ☰ 8.6.3.1 Origin of Modern Humans
- ☰ 8.6.4 Cognitive and Cultural Evolution
☰ 8.7 Classification of Diversity (Systematics)
- ☰ 8.7.1 Domain Archaea
- ☰ 8.7.2 Domain Bacteria
- ☰ 8.7.3 Domain Eukarya
  - ☰ 8.7.3.1 1st Kingdom: Protista
  - ☰ 8.7.3.2 2nd Kingdom: Plantae
  - ☰ 8.7.3.3 3rd Kingdom: Fungi
  - ☰ 8.7.3.4 4th Kingdom: Animalia

☰ 9 Behavioral Biology

☰ 9.1 Goals and Methods of Behavioral Biology
- ☰ 9.1.1 Subfields of Behavioral Biology
- ☰ 9.1.2 Goals of Behavioral Biology
- ☰ 9.1.3 Methods of Behavior Recording and Analysis
- ☰ 9.1.4 Applied Behavioral Research
☰ 9.2 Development of Behavior
- ☰ 9.2.1 Ontogeny and Individual Development of Behavior
- ☰ 9.2.2 Behavior of Juvenile Animals
☰ 9.3 Mechanisms of Behavior
- ☰ 9.3.1 Coordination of Movements
- ☰ 9.3.2 Innate Behavior
- ☰ 9.3.3 Learned Behavior
☰ 9.4 Adaptiveness of Behavior
- ☰ 9.4.1 Adaptation Strategies
- ☰ 9.4.2 Communication
- ☰ 9.4.3 Social Structures and Forms of Organization
- ☰ 9.4.4 Conflict Behavior
- ☰ 9.4.5 Reproductive Behavior and Parental Care
- ☰ 9.4.6 The Special Status of Humans – An Outdated Concept?

☰ 10 Ecology

☰ 10.1 Organisms in Their Environment
- ☰ 10.1.1 Tolerance Range and Ecological Potency
- ☰ 10.1.2 Abiotic Environmental Factors
  - ☰ 10.1.2.1 Influence of Water
  - ☰ 10.1.2.2 Influence of Light
  - ☰ 10.1.2.3 Influence of Mechanical Factors
  - ☰ 10.1.2.4 Influence of Soil Factors
- ☰ 10.1.3 Biotic Environmental Factors
☰ 10.2 Structure of the Biosphere
- ☰ 10.2.1 Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles
  - ☰ 10.2.1.1 Carbon Cycle
  - ☰ 10.2.1.2 Nitrogen Cycle
  - ☰ 10.2.1.3 Phosphorus Cycle
  - ☰ 10.2.1.4 Sulfur Cycle
- ☰ 10.2.2 Ecosystems
- ☰ 10.2.3 Zonation of the Biosphere
  - ☰ 10.2.3.1 Orobiomes – Mountain Ecosystems
  - ☰ 10.2.3.2 Azonal Biomes
- ☰ 10.2.4 Development and Change of Ecosystems
- ☰ 10.2.5 Forest Ecosystem
- ☰ 10.2.6 Lake Ecosystem
☰ 10.3 Population Ecology
- ☰ 10.3.1 Growth and Development of a Population
- ☰ 10.3.2 Age Structure of Populations
- ☰ 10.3.3 Regulation of Population Density
☰ 10.4 Humans and the Biosphere
- ☰ 10.4.1 Development of the World Population
- ☰ 10.4.2 Resources and Management of Land and Seas
- ☰ 10.4.3 Pollution of Air, Water, Soil
  - ☰ 10.4.3.1 Air
  - ☰ 10.4.3.2 Water
  - ☰ 10.4.3.3 Soil
- ☰ 10.4.4 Waste and Recycling
☰ 10.5 Nature and Environmental Protection
- ☰ 10.5.1 Why Protect Nature and the Environment?
- ☰ 10.5.2 Decline of Biological Diversity
  - ☰ 10.5.2.1 Climate Change
- ☰ 10.5.3 Laws and Measures
  - ☰ 10.5.3.1 International Efforts
  - ☰ 10.5.3.2 Legislation
  - ☰ 10.5.3.3 Protected Areas

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