Biology

Where to Move

Move chapter:

• ☰ 1 Biology as the Science of Living Organisms
  • ☰ 1.1 The Biological Age
    • ☰ 1.1.1 Biology Determines Our Lives
    • ☰ 1.1.2 Characteristics of Living Things
    • ☰ 1.1.3 Organization of the Living
  • ☰ 1.2 The Development of Biology as a Science
    • ☰ 1.2.1 Beginnings in Antiquity
    • ☰ 1.2.2 A New Beginning in the Renaissance
    • ☰ 1.2.3 The Enlightenment
    • ☰ 1.2.4 Recording Biological Diversity
    • ☰ 1.2.5 Vitalism and Mechanism
    • ☰ 1.2.6 Evolutionary Theory and Its Consequences
    • ☰ 1.2.7 Molecular Foundations
    • ☰ 1.2.8 Global Interrelationships and the Gaia Hypothesis
  • ☰ 1.3 Biological Sciences
    • ☰ 1.3.1 Subdisciplines of the Biological Sciences
    • ☰ 1.3.2 Ways of Thinking and Working in Biology
      • ☰ 1.3.2.1 Searching for, Evaluating, Processing, and Presenting Information
      • ☰ 1.3.2.2 Induction and Deduction
    • ☰ 1.3.3 Relationships to Other Natural Sciences
    • ☰ 1.3.4 Relationships to the Humanities
    • ☰ 1.3.5 Interdisciplinary Fields
• ☰ 2 Basic Building Blocks of Life
  • ☰ 2.1 Carbon as the Element of Life
    • ☰ 2.1.1 The Periodic Table of the Elements
      • ☰ 2.1.1.1 Types of Chemical Bonds
    • ☰ 2.1.2 Carbon as an Element
    • ☰ 2.1.3 Possible Carbon Compounds
  • ☰ 2.2 Water as the Medium of Life
    • ☰ 2.2.1 Properties of Water
    • ☰ 2.2.2 Autoprotolysis of Water
  • ☰ 2.3 Macromolecules
    • ☰ 2.3.1 Proteins and Their Structure
    • ☰ 2.3.2 Carbohydrates
      • ☰ 2.3.2.1 Monosaccharides
      • ☰ 2.3.2.2 Disaccharides
      • ☰ 2.3.2.3 Polysaccharides
    • ☰ 2.3.3 Lipids
    • ☰ 2.3.4 Nucleic Acids
    • ☰ 2.3.5 Other Important Molecules
      • ☰ 2.3.5.1 Pyrrole Compounds
      • ☰ 2.3.5.2 Terpenes – Isoprenoids
  • ☰ 2.4 Cells and Cell Components
    • ☰ 2.4.1 The Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
    • ☰ 2.4.2 Basic Structures: Membrane, Fibril, Granum
    • ☰ 2.4.3 The Prokaryotic Cell (Procyte)
    • ☰ 2.4.4 The Eukaryotic Cell (Eucyte): The Cell of Eukaryotes
    • ☰ 2.4.5 Viruses, Viroids, and Prions
  • ☰ 2.5 From Cells to Tissues and Organs
    • ☰ 2.5.1 Nuclear and Cell Division
    • ☰ 2.5.2 Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
• ☰ 3 Metabolism and Energy Conversion
  • ☰ 3.1 Energy Conversion in Metabolic Processes
    • ☰ 3.1.1 Metabolic Pathways
    • ☰ 3.1.2 Organisms Live on Free Energy
      • ☰ 3.1.2.1 Thermodynamic Equilibrium and Free Energy
      • ☰ 3.1.2.2 Steady State
    • ☰ 3.1.3 ATP: Energy Carrier in Cells or Organisms
      • ☰ 3.1.3.1 ATP Regeneration
    • ☰ 3.1.4 Determining Energy Conversion
      • ☰ 3.1.4.1 Metabolic Rate
      • ☰ 3.1.4.2 Direct Calorimetry
      • ☰ 3.1.4.3 Indirect Calorimetry (Respirometry)
      • ☰ 3.1.4.4 Basal Metabolic Rate and Performance Metabolism
  • ☰ 3.2 Enzymes as Catalysts in the Organism
    • ☰ 3.2.1 Course of Enzymatic Reactions
    • ☰ 3.2.2 Structure and Function of Enzymes
    • ☰ 3.2.3 Enzyme Activity
      • ☰ 3.2.3.1 Influence of Temperature
      • ☰ 3.2.3.2 Influence of pH
      • ☰ 3.2.3.3 Concentration
      • ☰ 3.2.3.4 Enzyme Regulation
      • ☰ 3.2.3.5 Importance of Enzymes
  • ☰ 3.3 Anabolic Metabolism
    • ☰ 3.3.1 Photosynthesis
      • ☰ 3.3.1.1 Location of Photosynthesis: Fine Structure of Chloroplasts
      • ☰ 3.3.1.2 Structure of the Photosystems
      • ☰ 3.3.1.3 Process of Photosynthesis: Light-Dependent Reactions
      • ☰ 3.3.1.4 Light-Independent Reactions (Dark Reaction, Calvin Cycle)
      • ☰ 3.3.1.5 Sequence of the Light-Dependent Reactions
      • ☰ 3.3.1.6 Factors Influencing Photosynthesis
    • ☰ 3.3.2 Chemolithoautotrophy (Chemosynthesis)
    • ☰ 3.3.3 Storage of Chemical Energy
  • ☰ 3.4 Catabolic Metabolism
    • ☰ 3.4.1 Cellular Respiration
      • ☰ 3.4.1.1 Glycolysis
      • ☰ 3.4.1.2 Transport of Pyruvate and Formation of Acetyl-CoA
      • ☰ 3.4.1.3 Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
      • ☰ 3.4.1.4 Electron Transport Chain
    • ☰ 3.4.2 Fermentation as Energy Release Without Oxygen
  • ☰ 3.5 Transport Processes in Plants
    • ☰ 3.5.1 Basic Components of the Plant
    • ☰ 3.5.2 Uptake of Water and Mineral Salts
    • ☰ 3.5.3 Water and Ion Transport in the Stem
    • ☰ 3.5.4 Regulation of Transpiration
    • ☰ 3.5.5 Transport of Organic Substances
  • ☰ 3.6 Digestion, Respiration, and Transport in Animals
    • ☰ 3.6.1 Respiration and Respiratory Organs
    • ☰ 3.6.2 Heart and Circulatory System
      • ☰ 3.6.2.1 Gas Exchange in Lungs and Tissues
      • ☰ 3.6.2.2 Transport of Carbon Dioxide
    • ☰ 3.6.3 Excretory Organs and Excretion
      • ☰ 3.6.3.1 Structure and Function of the Human Kidney
      • ☰ 3.6.3.2 Formation of Urine in the Nephron
• ☰ 4 Control, Regulation, and Information Processing
  • ☰ 4.1 Excitation and Conduction
    • ☰ 4.1.1 Biological Basics
    • ☰ 4.1.2 Excitability and Response in Algae and Plants
    • ☰ 4.1.3 Excitability of Animal Cells
    • ☰ 4.1.4 Conduction of Excitation
    • ☰ 4.1.5 Transmission of Excitation Between Excitable Cells
    • ☰ 4.1.6 From Stimulus Reception to Response
  • ☰ 4.2 Sense Organs
    • ☰ 4.2.1 Mediators Between Organism and Environment
    • ☰ 4.2.2 Visual Sense
    • ☰ 4.2.3 Hearing Sense
    • ☰ 4.2.4 Sense of Balance
    • ☰ 4.2.5 Skin Senses
    • ☰ 4.2.6 Chemical Sense
    • ☰ 4.2.7 Electrical Sense and Magnetic Sense
  • ☰ 4.3 Information Processing and Storage
    • ☰ 4.3.1 Nervous Systems of Invertebrates
    • ☰ 4.3.2 Nervous Systems of Vertebrates
    • ☰ 4.3.3 Memory, Language, Consciousness
    • ☰ 4.3.4 Sleep
    • ☰ 4.3.5 Psychoactive Substances and Neurotoxins
    • ☰ 4.3.6 Muscles and Movement
    • ☰ 4.3.7 Function of Muscle Cells
    • ☰ 4.3.8 Muscle Movement
  • ☰ 4.4 Hormones
    • ☰ 4.4.1 The Endocrine System of Vertebrates and Humans
      • ☰ 4.4.1.1 Classification of Hormones
    • ☰ 4.4.2 Coupling of Nervous and Endocrine Systems
    • ☰ 4.4.3 The Endocrine System of Invertebrates
    • ☰ 4.4.4 Plant Hormones
    • ☰ 4.4.5 Pheromones
• ☰ 5 Reproduction, Growth, Development
  • ☰ 5.1 Reproduction
    • ☰ 5.1.1 Reproduction and Nutrition
    • ☰ 5.1.2 Asexual Reproduction
    • ☰ 5.1.3 Sexual Reproduction
  • ☰ 5.2 Lower Organisms
    • ☰ 5.2.1 Prokaryotes
    • ☰ 5.2.2 Protists
    • ☰ 5.2.3 Fungi
  • ☰ 5.3 Plants
    • ☰ 5.3.1 Growth and Differentiation
    • ☰ 5.3.2 Reproduction Techniques
  • ☰ 5.4 Animals and Humans
    • ☰ 5.4.1 Embryonic Development in Animals
    • ☰ 5.4.2 Embryonic Development in Humans
    • ☰ 5.4.3 Developmental Disorders and Reproductive Technologies
• ☰ 6 Genetics
  • ☰ 6.1 Molecular Foundations of Heredity
    • ☰ 6.1.1 Nucleic Acids as Carriers of Genetic Information
      • ☰ 6.1.1.1 Structure of DNA
      • ☰ 6.1.1.2 Genetic Code
      • ☰ 6.1.1.3 Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
    • ☰ 6.1.2 Identical Replicators
    • ☰ 6.1.3 From Gene to Protein
      • ☰ 6.1.3.1 Protein Biosynthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
    • ☰ 6.1.4 Regulation of Gene Activity
      • ☰ 6.1.4.1 Transcriptional Control in Prokaryotes
      • ☰ 6.1.4.2 Regulation of Gene Activity in Eukaryotes
    • ☰ 6.1.5 Modification
      • ☰ 6.1.5.1 Continuous Variation
      • ☰ 6.1.5.2 Discontinuous Variation
      • ☰ 6.1.5.3 Modificatory (Phenotypic) Sex Determination
    • ☰ 6.1.6 Mutation
      • ☰ 6.1.6.1 Causes of Mutations
      • ☰ 6.1.6.2 Types of Mutations
  • ☰ 6.2 Inheritance Rules and Their Applications
    • ☰ 6.2.1 Mendelian Laws of Inheritance
      • ☰ 6.2.1.1 Mendel’s Crossbreeding Experiments
      • ☰ 6.2.1.2 Dominant – Recessive – Intermediate
      • ☰ 6.2.1.3 Mendelian Terminology
    • ☰ 6.2.2 Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
      • ☰ 6.2.2.1 Gene Linkage
    • ☰ 6.2.3 Inheritance in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.3.1 Genotypic Sex Determination in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.3.2 Barr Body and Lyon Hypothesis
    • ☰ 6.2.4 Gene Mutations in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.4.1 X-linked Recessive Genetic Disorders
      • ☰ 6.2.4.2 Autosomal Genetic Disorders
    • ☰ 6.2.5 Chromosomal Aberrations in Humans
      • ☰ 6.2.5.1 Sex Chromosome Aberrations in Humans
  • ☰ 6.3 Genetic Engineering
    • ☰ 6.3.1 Basics of Genetic Engineering
      • ☰ 6.3.1.1 Selected Aspects of Viral and Bacterial Genetics
      • ☰ 6.3.1.2 Bacteriophages
      • ☰ 6.3.1.3 Retroviruses Contradict the Central Dogma
      • ☰ 6.3.1.4 Bacteria
    • ☰ 6.3.2 Methods of Investigation
      • ☰ 6.3.2.1 Restriction Enzymes and Ligases
      • ☰ 6.3.2.2 Gel Electrophoresis
      • ☰ 6.3.2.3 Hybridization
      • ☰ 6.3.2.4 Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
      • ☰ 6.3.2.5 DNA Sequencing
      • ☰ 6.3.2.6 Transfer of Foreign Genetic Material
    • ☰ 6.3.3 Applications of Genetics
    • ☰ 6.3.4 Gene Mapping
    • ☰ 6.3.5 Gene Therapy
• ☰ 7 Disease and Health
  • ☰ 7.1 Terms and Definitions
    • ☰ 7.1.1 Health
    • ☰ 7.1.2 Disease
  • ☰ 7.2 Infectious Diseases in Humans
    • ☰ 7.2.1 Transmission and Course of Infectious Diseases
    • ☰ 7.2.2 Subviral Structures as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.2.1 Viroids
      • ☰ 7.2.2.2 Prions
    • ☰ 7.2.3 Viruses as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.3.1 Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
    • ☰ 7.2.4 Bacteria as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.4.1 Plague Pathogen
      • ☰ 7.2.4.2 Salmonella
    • ☰ 7.2.5 Fungi as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.5.1 Yeasts
      • ☰ 7.2.5.2 Dermatophytes
    • ☰ 7.2.6 Protists as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.6.1 Malaria Pathogen
    • ☰ 7.2.7 Animals as Pathogens
      • ☰ 7.2.7.1 Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
      • ☰ 7.2.7.2 Mites as Agents of Scabies
  • ☰ 7.3 Immunobiology
    • ☰ 7.3.1 Nonspecific Immune Response
      • ☰ 7.3.1.1 Passive Resistance: General Defense
      • ☰ 7.3.1.2 Active Resistance
    • ☰ 7.3.2 Specific Immune Response
      • ☰ 7.3.2.1 Antibodies
    • ☰ 7.3.3 Active and Passive Immunization
      • ☰ 7.3.3.1 Active Immunization
      • ☰ 7.3.3.2 Passive Immunization
    • ☰ 7.3.4 Autoimmune Diseases
    • ☰ 7.3.5 Allergies
      • ☰ 7.3.5.1 Type I Allergies: Immediate Type
      • ☰ 7.3.5.2 Prophylaxis and Therapy of Allergies
  • ☰ 7.4 Plant Defense Systems
    • ☰ 7.4.1 Defense Mechanisms of Plants
    • ☰ 7.4.2 Economic Applications
• ☰ 8 Evolution and Biological Diversity
  • ☰ 8.1 History of Evolutionary Thought
    • ☰ 8.1.1 Evolutionary Theories Through Time
      • ☰ 8.1.1.1 Creation Myths
      • ☰ 8.1.1.2 Ancient Natural Philosophy
      • ☰ 8.1.1.3 Early Scientific Approaches to Descent
      • ☰ 8.1.1.4 Mechanism and Vitalism
      • ☰ 8.1.1.5 Pioneers of Scientific Evolutionary Theory
      • ☰ 8.1.1.6 Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
      • ☰ 8.1.1.7 Comparison of Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theories
    • ☰ 8.1.2 Ideas on the Origin of Life
      • ☰ 8.1.2.1 The “RNA World”
      • ☰ 8.1.2.2 The Hypercycle Model
      • ☰ 8.1.2.3 Extraterrestrial Origin of Life
  • ☰ 8.2 Evidence for the Evolution of Organisms
    • ☰ 8.2.1 Common Origin of All Living Things
    • ☰ 8.2.2 Fossils as Evidence for Evolution
      • ☰ 8.2.2.1 General Findings from the Fossil Record
    • ☰ 8.2.3 Transitional Forms
    • ☰ 8.2.4 Evidence from Ontogeny
    • ☰ 8.2.5 Homology and Analogy
      • ☰ 8.2.5.1 Criterion of Position
      • ☰ 8.2.5.2 Criterion of Specific Quality
      • ☰ 8.2.5.3 Criterion of Intermediate Forms (Continuity)
    • ☰ 8.2.6 Rudimentary Organs and Atavisms
  • ☰ 8.3 Evolutionary Factors and Their Effects
    • ☰ 8.3.1 The Synthetic Theory of Evolution
      • ☰ 8.3.1.1 Mutation and Recombination
      • ☰ 8.3.1.2 Adaptive Selection
      • ☰ 8.3.1.3 Genetic Drift
      • ☰ 8.3.1.4 Isolation and Speciation
    • ☰ 8.3.2 Further Developments and Alternative Theories
  • ☰ 8.4 Symbiogenesis
    • ☰ 8.4.1 Life Means Living Together
    • ☰ 8.4.2 Competition – Symbiosis – Commensalism – Antibiosis
    • ☰ 8.4.3 Origin of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes (Endosymbiotic Theory)
  • ☰ 8.5 Phylogeny and the Diversity of Life
    • ☰ 8.5.1 Patterns of Evolution
    • ☰ 8.5.2 Phylogenetic Research
  • ☰ 8.6 Human Evolution
    • ☰ 8.6.1 Relationships Among Primates
      • ☰ 8.6.1.1 The Position of Humans in the Natural System
    • ☰ 8.6.2 Human Fossil Record
    • ☰ 8.6.3 Do Human Races Exist?
      • ☰ 8.6.3.1 Origin of Modern Humans
    • ☰ 8.6.4 Cognitive and Cultural Evolution
  • ☰ 8.7 Classification of Diversity (Systematics)
    • ☰ 8.7.1 Domain Archaea
    • ☰ 8.7.2 Domain Bacteria
    • ☰ 8.7.3 Domain Eukarya
      • ☰ 8.7.3.1 1st Kingdom: Protista
      • ☰ 8.7.3.2 2nd Kingdom: Plantae
      • ☰ 8.7.3.3 3rd Kingdom: Fungi
      • ☰ 8.7.3.4 4th Kingdom: Animalia
• ☰ 9 Behavioral Biology
  • ☰ 9.1 Goals and Methods of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ 9.1.1 Subfields of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ 9.1.2 Goals of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ 9.1.3 Methods of Behavior Recording and Analysis
    • ☰ 9.1.4 Applied Behavioral Research
  • ☰ 9.2 Development of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.2.1 Ontogeny and Individual Development of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.2.2 Behavior of Juvenile Animals
  • ☰ 9.3 Mechanisms of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.3.1 Coordination of Movements
    • ☰ 9.3.2 Innate Behavior
    • ☰ 9.3.3 Learned Behavior
  • ☰ 9.4 Adaptiveness of Behavior
    • ☰ 9.4.1 Adaptation Strategies
    • ☰ 9.4.2 Communication
    • ☰ 9.4.3 Social Structures and Forms of Organization
    • ☰ 9.4.4 Conflict Behavior
    • ☰ 9.4.5 Reproductive Behavior and Parental Care
    • ☰ 9.4.6 The Special Status of Humans – An Outdated Concept?
• ☰ 10 Ecology
  • ☰ 10.1 Organisms in Their Environment
    • ☰ 10.1.1 Tolerance Range and Ecological Potency
    • ☰ 10.1.2 Abiotic Environmental Factors
      • ☰ 10.1.2.1 Influence of Water
      • ☰ 10.1.2.2 Influence of Light
      • ☰ 10.1.2.3 Influence of Mechanical Factors
      • ☰ 10.1.2.4 Influence of Soil Factors
    • ☰ 10.1.3 Biotic Environmental Factors
  • ☰ 10.2 Structure of the Biosphere
    • ☰ 10.2.1 Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles
      • ☰ 10.2.1.1 Carbon Cycle
      • ☰ 10.2.1.2 Nitrogen Cycle
      • ☰ 10.2.1.3 Phosphorus Cycle
      • ☰ 10.2.1.4 Sulfur Cycle
    • ☰ 10.2.2 Ecosystems
    • ☰ 10.2.3 Zonation of the Biosphere
      • ☰ 10.2.3.1 Orobiomes – Mountain Ecosystems
      • ☰ 10.2.3.2 Azonal Biomes
    • ☰ 10.2.4 Development and Change of Ecosystems
    • ☰ 10.2.5 Forest Ecosystem
    • ☰ 10.2.6 Lake Ecosystem
  • ☰ 10.3 Population Ecology
    • ☰ 10.3.1 Growth and Development of a Population
    • ☰ 10.3.2 Age Structure of Populations
    • ☰ 10.3.3 Regulation of Population Density
  • ☰ 10.4 Humans and the Biosphere
    • ☰ 10.4.1 Development of the World Population
    • ☰ 10.4.2 Resources and Management of Land and Seas
    • ☰ 10.4.3 Pollution of Air, Water, Soil
      • ☰ 10.4.3.1 Air
      • ☰ 10.4.3.2 Water
      • ☰ 10.4.3.3 Soil
    • ☰ 10.4.4 Waste and Recycling
  • ☰ 10.5 Nature and Environmental Protection
    • ☰ 10.5.1 Why Protect Nature and the Environment?
    • ☰ 10.5.2 Decline of Biological Diversity
      • ☰ 10.5.2.1 Climate Change
    • ☰ 10.5.3 Laws and Measures
      • ☰ 10.5.3.1 International Efforts
      • ☰ 10.5.3.2 Legislation
      • ☰ 10.5.3.3 Protected Areas