Biology

Where to Move

Move chapter:

• ☰ Biology as the Science of Living Organisms
  • ☰ The Biological Age
    • ☰ Biology Determines Our Lives
    • ☰ Characteristics of Living Things
    • ☰ Organization of the Living
  • ☰ The Development of Biology as a Science
    • ☰ Beginnings in Antiquity
    • ☰ A New Beginning in the Renaissance
    • ☰ The Enlightenment
    • ☰ Recording Biological Diversity
    • ☰ Vitalism and Mechanism
    • ☰ Evolutionary Theory and Its Consequences
    • ☰ Molecular Foundations
    • ☰ Global Interrelationships and the Gaia Hypothesis
  • ☰ Biological Sciences
    • ☰ Subdisciplines of the Biological Sciences
    • ☰ Ways of Thinking and Working in Biology
      • ☰ Searching for, Evaluating, Processing, and Presenting Information
      • ☰ Induction and Deduction
    • ☰ Relationships to Other Natural Sciences
    • ☰ Relationships to the Humanities
    • ☰ Interdisciplinary Fields
• ☰ Basic Building Blocks of Life
  • ☰ Carbon as the Element of Life
    • ☰ The Periodic Table of the Elements
      • ☰ Types of Chemical Bonds
    • ☰ Carbon as an Element
    • ☰ Possible Carbon Compounds
  • ☰ Water as the Medium of Life
    • ☰ Properties of Water
    • ☰ Autoprotolysis of Water
  • ☰ Macromolecules
    • ☰ Proteins and Their Structure
    • ☰ Carbohydrates
      • ☰ Monosaccharides
      • ☰ Disaccharides
      • ☰ Polysaccharides
    • ☰ Lipids
    • ☰ Nucleic Acids
    • ☰ Other Important Molecules
      • ☰ Pyrrole Compounds
      • ☰ Terpenes – Isoprenoids
  • ☰ Cells and Cell Components
    • ☰ The Cell as the Basic Unit of Life
    • ☰ Basic Structures: Membrane, Fibril, Granum
    • ☰ The Prokaryotic Cell (Procyte)
    • ☰ The Eukaryotic Cell (Eucyte): The Cell of Eukaryotes
    • ☰ Viruses, Viroids, and Prions
  • ☰ From Cells to Tissues and Organs
    • ☰ Nuclear and Cell Division
    • ☰ Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
• ☰ Metabolism and Energy Conversion
  • ☰ Energy Conversion in Metabolic Processes
    • ☰ Metabolic Pathways
    • ☰ Organisms Live on Free Energy
      • ☰ Thermodynamic Equilibrium and Free Energy
      • ☰ Steady State
    • ☰ ATP: Energy Carrier in Cells or Organisms
      • ☰ ATP Regeneration
    • ☰ Determining Energy Conversion
      • ☰ Metabolic Rate
      • ☰ Direct Calorimetry
      • ☰ Indirect Calorimetry (Respirometry)
      • ☰ Basal Metabolic Rate and Performance Metabolism
  • ☰ Enzymes as Catalysts in the Organism
    • ☰ Course of Enzymatic Reactions
    • ☰ Structure and Function of Enzymes
    • ☰ Enzyme Activity
      • ☰ Influence of Temperature
      • ☰ Influence of pH
      • ☰ Concentration
      • ☰ Enzyme Regulation
      • ☰ Importance of Enzymes
  • ☰ Anabolic Metabolism
    • ☰ Photosynthesis
      • ☰ Location of Photosynthesis: Fine Structure of Chloroplasts
      • ☰ Structure of the Photosystems
      • ☰ Process of Photosynthesis: Light-Dependent Reactions
      • ☰ Light-Independent Reactions (Dark Reaction, Calvin Cycle)
      • ☰ Sequence of the Light-Dependent Reactions
      • ☰ Factors Influencing Photosynthesis
    • ☰ Chemolithoautotrophy (Chemosynthesis)
    • ☰ Storage of Chemical Energy
  • ☰ Catabolic Metabolism
    • ☰ Cellular Respiration
      • ☰ Glycolysis
      • ☰ Transport of Pyruvate and Formation of Acetyl-CoA
      • ☰ Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)
      • ☰ Electron Transport Chain
    • ☰ Fermentation as Energy Release Without Oxygen
  • ☰ Transport Processes in Plants
    • ☰ Basic Components of the Plant
    • ☰ Uptake of Water and Mineral Salts
    • ☰ Water and Ion Transport in the Stem
    • ☰ Regulation of Transpiration
    • ☰ Transport of Organic Substances
  • ☰ Digestion, Respiration, and Transport in Animals
    • ☰ Respiration and Respiratory Organs
    • ☰ Heart and Circulatory System
      • ☰ Gas Exchange in Lungs and Tissues
      • ☰ Transport of Carbon Dioxide
    • ☰ Excretory Organs and Excretion
      • ☰ Structure and Function of the Human Kidney
      • ☰ Formation of Urine in the Nephron
• ☰ Control, Regulation, and Information Processing
  • ☰ Excitation and Conduction
    • ☰ Biological Basics
    • ☰ Excitability and Response in Algae and Plants
    • ☰ Excitability of Animal Cells
    • ☰ Conduction of Excitation
    • ☰ Transmission of Excitation Between Excitable Cells
    • ☰ From Stimulus Reception to Response
  • ☰ Sense Organs
    • ☰ Mediators Between Organism and Environment
    • ☰ Visual Sense
    • ☰ Hearing Sense
    • ☰ Sense of Balance
    • ☰ Skin Senses
    • ☰ Chemical Sense
    • ☰ Electrical Sense and Magnetic Sense
  • ☰ Information Processing and Storage
    • ☰ Nervous Systems of Invertebrates
    • ☰ Nervous Systems of Vertebrates
    • ☰ Memory, Language, Consciousness
    • ☰ Sleep
    • ☰ Psychoactive Substances and Neurotoxins
    • ☰ Muscles and Movement
    • ☰ Function of Muscle Cells
    • ☰ Muscle Movement
  • ☰ Hormones
    • ☰ The Endocrine System of Vertebrates and Humans
      • ☰ Classification of Hormones
    • ☰ Coupling of Nervous and Endocrine Systems
    • ☰ The Endocrine System of Invertebrates
    • ☰ Plant Hormones
    • ☰ Pheromones
• ☰ Reproduction, Growth, Development
  • ☰ Reproduction
    • ☰ Reproduction and Nutrition
    • ☰ Asexual Reproduction
    • ☰ Sexual Reproduction
  • ☰ Lower Organisms
    • ☰ Prokaryotes
    • ☰ Protists
    • ☰ Fungi
  • ☰ Plants
    • ☰ Growth and Differentiation
    • ☰ Reproduction Techniques
  • ☰ Animals and Humans
    • ☰ Embryonic Development in Animals
    • ☰ Embryonic Development in Humans
    • ☰ Developmental Disorders and Reproductive Technologies
• ☰ Genetics
  • ☰ Molecular Foundations of Heredity
    • ☰ Nucleic Acids as Carriers of Genetic Information
      • ☰ Structure of DNA
      • ☰ Genetic Code
      • ☰ Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
    • ☰ Identical Replicators
    • ☰ From Gene to Protein
      • ☰ Protein Biosynthesis in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
    • ☰ Regulation of Gene Activity
      • ☰ Transcriptional Control in Prokaryotes
      • ☰ Regulation of Gene Activity in Eukaryotes
    • ☰ Modification
      • ☰ Continuous Variation
      • ☰ Discontinuous Variation
      • ☰ Modificatory (Phenotypic) Sex Determination
    • ☰ Mutation
      • ☰ Causes of Mutations
      • ☰ Types of Mutations
  • ☰ Inheritance Rules and Their Applications
    • ☰ Mendelian Laws of Inheritance
      • ☰ Mendel’s Crossbreeding Experiments
      • ☰ Dominant – Recessive – Intermediate
      • ☰ Mendelian Terminology
    • ☰ Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
      • ☰ Gene Linkage
    • ☰ Inheritance in Humans
      • ☰ Genotypic Sex Determination in Humans
      • ☰ Barr Body and Lyon Hypothesis
    • ☰ Gene Mutations in Humans
      • ☰ X-linked Recessive Genetic Disorders
      • ☰ Autosomal Genetic Disorders
    • ☰ Chromosomal Aberrations in Humans
      • ☰ Sex Chromosome Aberrations in Humans
  • ☰ Genetic Engineering
    • ☰ Basics of Genetic Engineering
      • ☰ Selected Aspects of Viral and Bacterial Genetics
      • ☰ Bacteriophages
      • ☰ Retroviruses Contradict the Central Dogma
      • ☰ Bacteria
    • ☰ Methods of Investigation
      • ☰ Restriction Enzymes and Ligases
      • ☰ Gel Electrophoresis
      • ☰ Hybridization
      • ☰ Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)
      • ☰ DNA Sequencing
      • ☰ Transfer of Foreign Genetic Material
    • ☰ Applications of Genetics
    • ☰ Gene Mapping
    • ☰ Gene Therapy
• ☰ Disease and Health
  • ☰ Terms and Definitions
    • ☰ Health
    • ☰ Disease
  • ☰ Infectious Diseases in Humans
    • ☰ Transmission and Course of Infectious Diseases
    • ☰ Subviral Structures as Pathogens
      • ☰ Viroids
      • ☰ Prions
    • ☰ Viruses as Pathogens
      • ☰ Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
    • ☰ Bacteria as Pathogens
      • ☰ Plague Pathogen
      • ☰ Salmonella
    • ☰ Fungi as Pathogens
      • ☰ Yeasts
      • ☰ Dermatophytes
    • ☰ Protists as Pathogens
      • ☰ Malaria Pathogen
    • ☰ Animals as Pathogens
      • ☰ Pinworm (Enterobius vermicularis)
      • ☰ Mites as Agents of Scabies
  • ☰ Immunobiology
    • ☰ Nonspecific Immune Response
      • ☰ Passive Resistance: General Defense
      • ☰ Active Resistance
    • ☰ Specific Immune Response
      • ☰ Antibodies
    • ☰ Active and Passive Immunization
      • ☰ Active Immunization
      • ☰ Passive Immunization
    • ☰ Autoimmune Diseases
    • ☰ Allergies
      • ☰ Type I Allergies: Immediate Type
      • ☰ Prophylaxis and Therapy of Allergies
  • ☰ Plant Defense Systems
    • ☰ Defense Mechanisms of Plants
    • ☰ Economic Applications
• ☰ Evolution and Biological Diversity
  • ☰ History of Evolutionary Thought
    • ☰ Evolutionary Theories Through Time
      • ☰ Creation Myths
      • ☰ Ancient Natural Philosophy
      • ☰ Early Scientific Approaches to Descent
      • ☰ Mechanism and Vitalism
      • ☰ Pioneers of Scientific Evolutionary Theory
      • ☰ Darwin’s Theory of Evolution
      • ☰ Comparison of Lamarck’s and Darwin’s Theories
    • ☰ Ideas on the Origin of Life
      • ☰ The “RNA World”
      • ☰ The Hypercycle Model
      • ☰ Extraterrestrial Origin of Life
  • ☰ Evidence for the Evolution of Organisms
    • ☰ Common Origin of All Living Things
    • ☰ Fossils as Evidence for Evolution
      • ☰ General Findings from the Fossil Record
    • ☰ Transitional Forms
    • ☰ Evidence from Ontogeny
    • ☰ Homology and Analogy
      • ☰ Criterion of Position
      • ☰ Criterion of Specific Quality
      • ☰ Criterion of Intermediate Forms (Continuity)
    • ☰ Rudimentary Organs and Atavisms
  • ☰ Evolutionary Factors and Their Effects
    • ☰ The Synthetic Theory of Evolution
      • ☰ Mutation and Recombination
      • ☰ Adaptive Selection
      • ☰ Genetic Drift
      • ☰ Isolation and Speciation
    • ☰ Further Developments and Alternative Theories
  • ☰ Symbiogenesis
    • ☰ Life Means Living Together
    • ☰ Competition – Symbiosis – Commensalism – Antibiosis
    • ☰ Origin of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes (Endosymbiotic Theory)
  • ☰ Phylogeny and the Diversity of Life
    • ☰ Patterns of Evolution
    • ☰ Phylogenetic Research
  • ☰ Human Evolution
    • ☰ Relationships Among Primates
      • ☰ The Position of Humans in the Natural System
    • ☰ Human Fossil Record
    • ☰ Do Human Races Exist?
      • ☰ Origin of Modern Humans
    • ☰ Cognitive and Cultural Evolution
  • ☰ Classification of Diversity (Systematics)
    • ☰ Domain Archaea
    • ☰ Domain Bacteria
    • ☰ Domain Eukarya
      • ☰ 1st Kingdom: Protista
      • ☰ 2nd Kingdom: Plantae
      • ☰ 3rd Kingdom: Fungi
      • ☰ 4th Kingdom: Animalia
• ☰ Behavioral Biology
  • ☰ Goals and Methods of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ Subfields of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ Goals of Behavioral Biology
    • ☰ Methods of Behavior Recording and Analysis
    • ☰ Applied Behavioral Research
  • ☰ Development of Behavior
    • ☰ Ontogeny and Individual Development of Behavior
    • ☰ Behavior of Juvenile Animals
  • ☰ Mechanisms of Behavior
    • ☰ Coordination of Movements
    • ☰ Innate Behavior
    • ☰ Learned Behavior
  • ☰ Adaptiveness of Behavior
    • ☰ Adaptation Strategies
    • ☰ Communication
    • ☰ Social Structures and Forms of Organization
    • ☰ Conflict Behavior
    • ☰ Reproductive Behavior and Parental Care
    • ☰ The Special Status of Humans – An Outdated Concept?
• ☰ Ecology
  • ☰ Organisms in Their Environment
    • ☰ Tolerance Range and Ecological Potency
    • ☰ Abiotic Environmental Factors
      • ☰ Influence of Water
      • ☰ Influence of Light
      • ☰ Influence of Mechanical Factors
      • ☰ Influence of Soil Factors
    • ☰ Biotic Environmental Factors
  • ☰ Structure of the Biosphere
    • ☰ Energy Flow and Nutrient Cycles
      • ☰ Carbon Cycle
      • ☰ Nitrogen Cycle
      • ☰ Phosphorus Cycle
      • ☰ Sulfur Cycle
    • ☰ Ecosystems
    • ☰ Zonation of the Biosphere
      • ☰ Orobiomes – Mountain Ecosystems
      • ☰ Azonal Biomes
    • ☰ Development and Change of Ecosystems
    • ☰ Forest Ecosystem
    • ☰ Lake Ecosystem
  • ☰ Population Ecology
    • ☰ Growth and Development of a Population
    • ☰ Age Structure of Populations
    • ☰ Regulation of Population Density
  • ☰ Humans and the Biosphere
    • ☰ Development of the World Population
    • ☰ Resources and Management of Land and Seas
    • ☰ Pollution of Air, Water, Soil
      • ☰ Air
      • ☰ Water
      • ☰ Soil
    • ☰ Waste and Recycling
  • ☰ Nature and Environmental Protection
    • ☰ Why Protect Nature and the Environment?
    • ☰ Decline of Biological Diversity
      • ☰ Climate Change
    • ☰ Laws and Measures
      • ☰ International Efforts
      • ☰ Legislation
      • ☰ Protected Areas