2.2.1.3. Contact Forces
Table of Contents
Touching interactions
A contact force is a force that appears when two objects interact through direct physical contact. Unlike long range forces such as gravity, a contact force requires bodies to touch, or at least to interact through a material medium. Contact forces are extremely common in everyday life. Walking, pushing a box, sitting on a chair, pulling a rope, and air resistance on a moving car all involve contact forces.
At the microscopic level, contact forces arise from electromagnetic interactions between atoms and molecules in the materials. In beginner mechanics, however, we do not usually analyze the atomic details. We treat contact forces as macroscopic forces that act at surfaces, along ropes, or through fluids.
Why contact forces matter
When an object moves or stays at rest, the cause is the total force acting on it. Many of those forces are contact forces. A book resting on a table experiences an upward force from the table. A person pulling a sled exerts a force through a rope. A rough floor resists sliding through friction. A fluid can push on an object through pressure or drag.
Contact forces are often the forces that balance other forces, especially weight. They are also the forces that transmit pushes and pulls from one object to another.
A contact force exists only because two bodies interact through contact, or through a material connection such as a rope, spring, surface, or fluid.
Main types of contact forces
Several important contact forces appear repeatedly in mechanics. Each has its own direction and physical meaning.
| Contact force | Typical source | Typical direction |
|---|---|---|
| Normal force | Surface on object | Perpendicular to the surface |
| Friction force | Surface on object | Parallel to the surface, opposes relative motion or attempted motion |
| Tension | Rope, string, cable | Along the rope, pulling away from the object |
| Spring force | Stretched or compressed spring | Along the spring, toward equilibrium |
| Drag force | Fluid such as air or water | Opposite the motion relative to the fluid |
Some of these forces have their own chapters, so here the goal is to understand the general idea of contact forces and how to recognize them.
Contact through surfaces
When one object presses against another, the surfaces push on each other. This interaction produces forces that can have different components. One component is perpendicular to the surface, which is called the normal force. Another component may be parallel to the surface, which is friction.
For example, a box on a floor is in contact with the floor. The floor pushes upward on the box. If someone tries to slide the box sideways, the floor may also exert a horizontal friction force.
The total contact force from a surface can be thought of as the combination of normal and friction forces. In simple problems, these are usually treated separately.
Contact through ropes and strings
A rope or string can transmit a pull from one object to another. This pull is called tension. A rope does not usually push in idealized mechanics problems, it only pulls. The force acts along the rope.
If you pull a bucket upward with a rope, the rope exerts an upward contact force on the bucket. At the same time, the bucket exerts an equal and opposite force on the rope.
Contact through springs
A spring exerts a contact force when it is stretched or compressed. This force tries to return the spring to its natural length. The spring force depends on how much the spring is deformed. In many simple cases, Hooke's law applies.
$$F_s = kx$$
where $k$ is the spring constant and $x$ is the amount of stretch or compression. The direction of the force is opposite to the deformation.
A spring force is a restoring contact force. It acts to bring the system back toward its equilibrium position.
Contact through fluids
Liquids and gases also exert contact forces. Water pushes on the walls of a container, air pushes on a moving ball, and a fluid can support an object through buoyancy. In mechanics, fluid contact forces often appear as pressure forces, drag forces, or buoyant forces.
A falling object in air may experience a drag force opposite to its motion. A submerged object experiences forces from the surrounding fluid on all sides. These are also contact forces because the fluid is touching the object.
Recognizing contact forces in problems
To identify a contact force, ask what object is physically touching the object you are studying. Then ask how that contact can push or pull.
If a book lies on a table, the table is touching the book, so a contact force from the table is present. If the book is tied to a string, the string exerts a contact force. If the book moves through air, the air may exert drag.
A useful habit is to name the force by both objects involved. For example, instead of saying only "normal force," say "the normal force of the table on the book." This makes the interaction clearer.
Action and reaction in contact
Every contact force belongs to an interaction between two objects. If object A pushes on object B, then object B pushes on object A with an equal magnitude and opposite direction. Contact forces are therefore excellent examples of interaction pairs.
If your hand pushes a wall, the wall pushes your hand back. If a tire pushes backward on the road, the road pushes the tire forward.
A contact force always comes with an equal and opposite force on the other object in contact.
Contact force compared with weight
A common beginner mistake is to confuse contact forces with weight. Weight is the gravitational force on an object. It does not require surface contact. The upward force from a table on a resting object is not weight. It is a contact force, usually the normal force.
For a book resting on a horizontal table, the weight acts downward and the table's contact force acts upward. These are different forces from different sources.
| Force | Source | Contact required? |
|---|---|---|
| Weight | Gravitational interaction with Earth | No |
| Normal force | Surface touching the object | Yes |
| Friction | Surface touching the object | Yes |
| Tension | Rope or string touching the object | Yes |
Contact forces can change direction
The direction of a contact force depends on the kind of contact. A surface force can be perpendicular, parallel, or a combination of both. A rope force must lie along the rope. A spring force lies along the spring. A fluid force often depends on the shape of the object and its motion.
This is why drawing the situation carefully is important. The geometry of the contact usually tells you the force direction.
In this example, the normal force is perpendicular to the slope, not vertical. The friction force is parallel to the slope.
Contact force as a result of deformation
Real materials deform, at least slightly, when they touch. A table bends a tiny amount under a heavy object. A ball compresses when it hits the ground. These small deformations create internal forces in the material, which appear macroscopically as contact forces.
This helps explain why contact forces can become large even when the visible deformation is small. A hard surface may look perfectly rigid, but it still deforms enough to push back strongly.
Summary idea
Contact forces are forces transmitted through touching objects or through material connections such as ropes, springs, and fluids. They include normal force, friction, tension, spring force, and drag. Their direction depends on the nature of the contact, and each contact force is part of an interaction between two objects.
To identify a contact force, always ask, "What is touching the object, and how can that contact push or pull?"
Views: 0
Where to Move
Move chapter:
- ☰ 1. Mathematical Foundations of Physics
- ☰ 1.1. Physical Quantities and Units
- ☰ 1.1.1. Physical Quantities
- ☰ 1.1.2. SI Base Units
- ☰ 1.1.3. Derived Units
- ☰ 1.1.4. Unit Conversions
- ☰ 1.1.5. Scientific Notation
- ☰ 1.1.6. Orders of Magnitude
- ☰ 1.1.7. Dimensional Analysis
- ☰ 1.1.8. Significant Figures
- ☰ 1.1.9. Measurement Uncertainty
-
- ☰ 1.2. Scalars and Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.1. Scalars and Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.2. Vector Notation
- ☰ 1.2.3. Vector Addition and Subtraction
- ☰ 1.2.4. Vector Components
- ☰ 1.2.5. Unit Vectors
- ☰ 1.2.6. Dot Product
- ☰ 1.2.7. Cross Product
- ☰ 1.2.8. Applications of Vectors in Physics
-
- ☰ 1.3. Coordinate Systems
- ☰ 1.3.1. Cartesian Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.2. Polar Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.3. Cylindrical Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.4. Spherical Coordinates
- ☰ 1.3.5. Coordinate Transformations
-
- ☰ 1.4. Calculus for Physics
- ☰ 1.4.1. Functions and Graphs
- ☰ 1.4.2. Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.3. Physical Meaning of Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.4. Partial Derivatives
- ☰ 1.4.5. Integrals
- ☰ 1.4.6. Physical Meaning of Integrals
- ☰ 1.4.7. Differential Equations
- ☰ 1.4.8. Taylor Series and Approximations
-
-
- ☰ 2. Part I: Classical Mechanics
- ☰ 2.1. Kinematics
- ☰ 2.1.1. Motion in One Dimension
- ☰ 2.1.1.1. Position
- ☰ 2.1.1.2. Distance and Displacement
- ☰ 2.1.1.3. Speed and Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.4. Average Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.5. Instantaneous Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.1.6. Acceleration
-
- ☰ 2.1.2. Motion with Constant Acceleration
- ☰ 2.1.2.1. Kinematic Equations
- ☰ 2.1.2.2. Free Fall
- ☰ 2.1.2.3. Vertical Motion
- ☰ 2.1.2.4. Position-Time Graphs
- ☰ 2.1.2.5. Velocity-Time Graphs
- ☰ 2.1.2.6. Acceleration-Time Graphs
-
- ☰ 2.1.3. Motion in Two and Three Dimensions
- ☰ 2.1.3.1. Position Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.2. Velocity Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.3. Acceleration Vectors
- ☰ 2.1.3.4. Relative Motion
-
- ☰ 2.1.4. Projectile Motion
- ☰ 2.1.4.1. Horizontal Projection
- ☰ 2.1.4.2. Oblique Projection
- ☰ 2.1.4.3. Maximum Height
- ☰ 2.1.4.4. Time of Flight
- ☰ 2.1.4.5. Projectile Range
- ☰ 2.1.4.6. Trajectory Equation
-
- ☰ 2.1.5. Circular Motion
- ☰ 2.1.5.1. Angular Position
- ☰ 2.1.5.2. Angular Velocity
- ☰ 2.1.5.3. Angular Acceleration
- ☰ 2.1.5.4. Uniform Circular Motion
- ☰ 2.1.5.5. Centripetal Acceleration
-
-
- ☰ 2.2. Newton's Laws of Motion
- ☰ 2.2.1. Force
- ☰ 2.2.1.1. Concept of Force
- ☰ 2.2.1.2. Fundamental Forces
- ☰ 2.2.1.3. Contact Forces
- ☰ 2.2.1.4. Free-Body Diagrams
-
- ☰ 2.2.2. Newton's First Law
- ☰ 2.2.2.1. Inertia
- ☰ 2.2.2.2. Inertial Reference Frames
- ☰ 2.2.2.3. Equilibrium
-
- ☰ 2.2.3. Newton's Second Law
- ☰ 2.2.3.1. Force, Mass, and Acceleration
- ☰ 2.2.3.2. Net Force
- ☰ 2.2.3.3. Applications of F = ma
-
- ☰ 2.2.4. Newton's Third Law
- ☰ 2.2.4.1. Action-Reaction Pairs
- ☰ 2.2.4.2. Interaction Forces
-
- ☰ 2.2.5. Common Forces
- ☰ 2.2.5.1. Weight
- ☰ 2.2.5.2. Normal Force
- ☰ 2.2.5.3. Tension
- ☰ 2.2.5.4. Spring Force
- ☰ 2.2.5.5. Static Friction
- ☰ 2.2.5.6. Kinetic Friction
- ☰ 2.2.5.7. Drag Force
-
- ☰ 2.2.6. Applications of Newton's Laws
- ☰ 2.2.6.1. Connected Objects
- ☰ 2.2.6.2. Pulley Systems
- ☰ 2.2.6.3. Inclined Planes
- ☰ 2.2.6.4. Elevators
- ☰ 2.2.6.5. Circular Motion
-
-
- ☰ 2.3. Work and Energy
- ☰ 2.3.1. Work
- ☰ 2.3.1.1. Work Done by a Constant Force
- ☰ 2.3.1.2. Work Done by a Variable Force
- ☰ 2.3.1.3. Work from Force-Position Graphs
-
- ☰ 2.3.2. Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.3.2.1. Translational Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.3.2.2. Work-Energy Theorem
-
- ☰ 2.3.3. Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.1. Gravitational Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.2. Elastic Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.3.3.3. Potential-Energy Curves
-
- ☰ 2.3.4. Conservation of Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.1. Mechanical Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.2. Conservative Forces
- ☰ 2.3.4.3. Non-Conservative Forces
- ☰ 2.3.4.4. Conservation of Mechanical Energy
- ☰ 2.3.4.5. Energy Dissipation
-
- ☰ 2.3.5. Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.1. Average Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.2. Instantaneous Power
- ☰ 2.3.5.3. Efficiency
-
-
- ☰ 2.4. Momentum and Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.1. Linear Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.1.1. Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.1.2. Momentum and Force
-
- ☰ 2.4.2. Impulse
- ☰ 2.4.2.1. Impulse
- ☰ 2.4.2.2. Impulse-Momentum Theorem
- ☰ 2.4.2.3. Force-Time Graphs
-
- ☰ 2.4.3. Conservation of Momentum
- ☰ 2.4.3.1. Isolated Systems
- ☰ 2.4.3.2. Center-of-Mass Motion
-
- ☰ 2.4.4. Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.1. Elastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.2. Inelastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.3. Perfectly Inelastic Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.4. One-Dimensional Collisions
- ☰ 2.4.4.5. Two-Dimensional Collisions
-
- ☰ 2.4.5. Center of Mass
- ☰ 2.4.5.1. Center of Mass of Particles
- ☰ 2.4.5.2. Center of Mass of Continuous Objects
-
- ☰ 2.4.6. Rocket Motion
- ☰ 2.4.6.1. Variable-Mass Systems
- ☰ 2.4.6.2. Rocket Equation
-
-
- ☰ 2.5. Rotational Motion
- ☰ 2.5.1. Rotational Kinematics
- ☰ 2.5.1.1. Angular Displacement
- ☰ 2.5.1.2. Angular Velocity
- ☰ 2.5.1.3. Angular Acceleration
-
- ☰ 2.5.2. Torque
- ☰ 2.5.2.1. Torque
- ☰ 2.5.2.2. Lever Arm
- ☰ 2.5.2.3. Vector Definition of Torque
-
- ☰ 2.5.3. Moment of Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.1. Rotational Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.2. Common Moments of Inertia
- ☰ 2.5.3.3. Parallel-Axis Theorem
-
- ☰ 2.5.4. Rotational Dynamics
- ☰ 2.5.4.1. Newton's Second Law for Rotation
- ☰ 2.5.4.2. Rotational Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 2.5.4.3. Work and Power in Rotation
-
- ☰ 2.5.5. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 2.5.5.1. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 2.5.5.2. Conservation of Angular Momentum
-
- ☰ 2.5.6. Rolling Motion
- ☰ 2.5.6.1. Rolling Without Slipping
- ☰ 2.5.6.2. Translational and Rotational Energy
-
- ☰ 2.5.7. Static Equilibrium
- ☰ 2.5.7.1. Conditions for Equilibrium
- ☰ 2.5.7.2. Center of Gravity
- ☰ 2.5.7.3. Stability
-
-
- ☰ 2.6. Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1. Newton's Law of Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1.1. Universal Gravitation
- ☰ 2.6.1.2. Gravitational Constant
- ☰ 2.6.1.3. Superposition
-
- ☰ 2.6.2. Gravitational Field
- ☰ 2.6.2.1. Gravitational Field Strength
- ☰ 2.6.2.2. Field of Spherical Bodies
-
- ☰ 2.6.3. Gravitational Potential
- ☰ 2.6.3.1. Gravitational Potential Energy
- ☰ 2.6.3.2. Gravitational Potential
-
- ☰ 2.6.4. Planetary Motion
- ☰ 2.6.4.1. Kepler's Laws
- ☰ 2.6.4.2. Circular Orbits
- ☰ 2.6.4.3. Orbital Velocity
- ☰ 2.6.4.4. Orbital Period
-
- ☰ 2.6.5. Satellites and Spaceflight
- ☰ 2.6.5.1. Geostationary Satellites
- ☰ 2.6.5.2. Escape Velocity
- ☰ 2.6.5.3. Orbital Energy
-
-
-
- ☰ 3. Part II: Oscillations, Waves, and Fluids
- ☰ 3.1. Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.1. Simple Harmonic Motion
- ☰ 3.1.1.1. Periodic Motion
- ☰ 3.1.1.2. Amplitude
- ☰ 3.1.1.3. Frequency and Period
- ☰ 3.1.1.4. Angular Frequency
- ☰ 3.1.1.5. SHM Equation
-
- ☰ 3.1.2. Mass-Spring Systems
- ☰ 3.1.2.1. Hooke's Law
- ☰ 3.1.2.2. Spring Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.2.3. Energy in SHM
-
- ☰ 3.1.3. Pendulums
- ☰ 3.1.3.1. Simple Pendulum
- ☰ 3.1.3.2. Physical Pendulum
-
- ☰ 3.1.4. Damped Oscillations
- ☰ 3.1.4.1. Damping
- ☰ 3.1.4.2. Critical Damping
-
- ☰ 3.1.5. Forced Oscillations and Resonance
- ☰ 3.1.5.1. Driving Force
- ☰ 3.1.5.2. Resonance
- ☰ 3.1.5.3. Natural Frequency
-
-
- ☰ 3.2. Mechanical Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1. Fundamentals of Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.1. Transverse Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.2. Longitudinal Waves
- ☰ 3.2.1.3. Wavelength
- ☰ 3.2.1.4. Frequency
- ☰ 3.2.1.5. Wave Speed
- ☰ 3.2.1.6. Amplitude
-
- ☰ 3.2.2. Mathematical Description of Waves
- ☰ 3.2.2.1. Wave Function
- ☰ 3.2.2.2. Phase
- ☰ 3.2.2.3. Wave Equation
-
- ☰ 3.2.3. Superposition
- ☰ 3.2.3.1. Interference
- ☰ 3.2.3.2. Constructive Interference
- ☰ 3.2.3.3. Destructive Interference
-
- ☰ 3.2.4. Standing Waves
- ☰ 3.2.4.1. Nodes and Antinodes
- ☰ 3.2.4.2. Strings
- ☰ 3.2.4.3. Pipes
- ☰ 3.2.4.4. Harmonics
-
- ☰ 3.2.5. Sound Waves
- ☰ 3.2.5.1. Speed of Sound
- ☰ 3.2.5.2. Sound Intensity
- ☰ 3.2.5.3. Decibels
- ☰ 3.2.5.4. Beats
- ☰ 3.2.5.5. Doppler Effect
-
-
- ☰ 3.3. Fluid Mechanics
- ☰ 3.3.1. Properties of Fluids
- ☰ 3.3.1.1. Density
- ☰ 3.3.1.2. Pressure
- ☰ 3.3.1.3. Compressibility
-
- ☰ 3.3.2. Fluid Statics
- ☰ 3.3.2.1. Hydrostatic Pressure
- ☰ 3.3.2.2. Pascal's Principle
-
- ☰ 3.3.3. Buoyancy
- ☰ 3.3.3.1. Archimedes' Principle
- ☰ 3.3.3.2. Floating and Sinking
-
- ☰ 3.3.4. Fluid Dynamics
- ☰ 3.3.4.1. Flow Rate
- ☰ 3.3.4.2. Continuity Equation
- ☰ 3.3.4.3. Bernoulli's Equation
-
- ☰ 3.3.5. Viscosity
- ☰ 3.3.5.1. Laminar Flow
- ☰ 3.3.5.2. Turbulent Flow
- ☰ 3.3.5.3. Poiseuille's Law
- ☰ 3.3.5.4. Reynolds Number
-
-
-
- ☰ 4. Part III: Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.1. Temperature and Heat
- ☰ 4.1.1. Temperature and Thermal Equilibrium
- ☰ 4.1.2. Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.1.3. Temperature Scales
- ☰ 4.1.4. Thermal Expansion
- ☰ 4.1.5. Heat and Internal Energy
- ☰ 4.1.6. Specific Heat Capacity
- ☰ 4.1.7. Calorimetry
- ☰ 4.1.8. Phase Changes
- ☰ 4.1.9. Latent Heat
- ☰ 4.1.10. Heat Transfer
-
- ☰ 4.2. Kinetic Theory of Gases
- ☰ 4.2.1. Ideal Gas Law
- ☰ 4.2.2. Molecular Interpretation of Pressure
- ☰ 4.2.3. Temperature and Molecular Kinetic Energy
- ☰ 4.2.4. RMS Molecular Speed
- ☰ 4.2.5. Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution
- ☰ 4.2.6. Mean Free Path
-
- ☰ 4.3. Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.1. Thermodynamic Systems
- ☰ 4.3.2. First Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.3. Isothermal Processes
- ☰ 4.3.4. Isobaric Processes
- ☰ 4.3.5. Isochoric Processes
- ☰ 4.3.6. Adiabatic Processes
- ☰ 4.3.7. Heat Engines
- ☰ 4.3.8. Carnot Cycle
- ☰ 4.3.9. Refrigerators
- ☰ 4.3.10. Second Law of Thermodynamics
- ☰ 4.3.11. Entropy
- ☰ 4.3.12. Reversible and Irreversible Processes
-
-
- ☰ 5. Part IV: Electricity and Magnetism
- ☰ 5.1. Electric Charge and Electric Field
- ☰ 5.1.1. Electric Charge
- ☰ 5.1.2. Conductors and Insulators
- ☰ 5.1.3. Coulomb's Law
- ☰ 5.1.4. Superposition
- ☰ 5.1.5. Electric Field
- ☰ 5.1.6. Electric Field Lines
- ☰ 5.1.7. Electric Dipoles
- ☰ 5.1.8. Electric Flux
- ☰ 5.1.9. Gauss's Law
-
- ☰ 5.2. Electric Potential
- ☰ 5.2.1. Electric Potential Energy
- ☰ 5.2.2. Electric Potential
- ☰ 5.2.3. Equipotential Surfaces
- ☰ 5.2.4. Relationship Between Potential and Field
- ☰ 5.2.5. Potential of Continuous Charge Distributions
-
- ☰ 5.3. Capacitance
- ☰ 5.3.1. Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.2. Parallel-Plate Capacitor
- ☰ 5.3.3. Series and Parallel Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.4. Energy Stored in Capacitors
- ☰ 5.3.5. Dielectrics
- ☰ 5.3.6. Polarization
-
- ☰ 5.4. Electric Current and Resistance
- ☰ 5.4.1. Electric Current
- ☰ 5.4.2. Current Density
- ☰ 5.4.3. Drift Velocity
- ☰ 5.4.4. Resistance
- ☰ 5.4.5. Ohm's Law
- ☰ 5.4.6. Resistivity
- ☰ 5.4.7. Electrical Energy
- ☰ 5.4.8. Electric Power
- ☰ 5.4.9. Electromotive Force
-
- ☰ 5.5. DC Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.1. Kirchhoff's Laws
- ☰ 5.5.2. Multi-Loop Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.3. RC Circuits
- ☰ 5.5.4. Measuring Instruments
-
- ☰ 5.6. Magnetism
- ☰ 5.6.1. Magnetic Fields
- ☰ 5.6.2. Lorentz Force
- ☰ 5.6.3. Motion of Charged Particles
- ☰ 5.6.4. Force on Current-Carrying Wires
- ☰ 5.6.5. Torque on Current Loops
- ☰ 5.6.6. Biot-Savart Law
- ☰ 5.6.7. Ampère's Law
- ☰ 5.6.8. Solenoids
- ☰ 5.6.9. Magnetic Materials
-
- ☰ 5.7. Electromagnetic Induction
- ☰ 5.7.1. Magnetic Flux
- ☰ 5.7.2. Faraday's Law
- ☰ 5.7.3. Lenz's Law
- ☰ 5.7.4. Motional EMF
- ☰ 5.7.5. Self-Inductance
- ☰ 5.7.6. Mutual Inductance
- ☰ 5.7.7. RL Circuits
- ☰ 5.7.8. LC Oscillations
-
- ☰ 5.8. Alternating Current
- ☰ 5.8.1. AC Voltage and Current
- ☰ 5.8.2. RMS Quantities
- ☰ 5.8.3. Resistors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.4. Capacitors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.5. Inductors in AC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.6. RLC Circuits
- ☰ 5.8.7. Impedance
- ☰ 5.8.8. Resonance
- ☰ 5.8.9. Transformers
-
- ☰ 5.9. Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.1. Gauss's Law for Electricity
- ☰ 5.9.2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism
- ☰ 5.9.3. Faraday's Law
- ☰ 5.9.4. Ampère-Maxwell Law
- ☰ 5.9.5. Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.6. Speed of Light
- ☰ 5.9.7. Electromagnetic Spectrum
- ☰ 5.9.8. Poynting Vector
- ☰ 5.9.9. Radiation Pressure
-
-
- ☰ 6. Part V: Optics
- ☰ 6.1. Geometrical Optics
- ☰ 6.1.1. Nature of Light
- ☰ 6.1.2. Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.3. Plane Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.4. Refraction
- ☰ 6.1.5. Snell's Law
- ☰ 6.1.6. Total Internal Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.7. Spherical Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.8. Thin Lenses
- ☰ 6.1.9. Mirror Equation
- ☰ 6.1.10. Lens Equation
- ☰ 6.1.11. Magnification
- ☰ 6.1.12. Ray Diagrams
- ☰ 6.1.13. Optical Instruments
-
- ☰ 6.2. Wave Optics
- ☰ 6.2.1. Interference
- ☰ 6.2.2. Young's Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 6.2.3. Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.4. Single-Slit Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.5. Diffraction Gratings
- ☰ 6.2.6. Polarization
- ☰ 6.2.7. Malus's Law
- ☰ 6.2.8. Brewster's Angle
- ☰ 6.2.9. Rayleigh Criterion
- ☰ 6.2.10. Optical Resolution
-
-
- ☰ 7. Part VI: Modern Physics
- ☰ 7.1. Special Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.1. Galilean Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.2. Michelson-Morley Experiment
- ☰ 7.1.3. Einstein's Postulates
- ☰ 7.1.4. Lorentz Transformations
- ☰ 7.1.5. Relativity of Simultaneity
- ☰ 7.1.6. Time Dilation
- ☰ 7.1.7. Length Contraction
- ☰ 7.1.8. Relativistic Velocity Addition
- ☰ 7.1.9. Relativistic Momentum
- ☰ 7.1.10. Relativistic Energy
- ☰ 7.1.11. Mass-Energy Equivalence
- ☰ 7.1.12. Energy-Momentum Relation
- ☰ 7.1.13. Spacetime Diagrams
- ☰ 7.1.14. Light Cones
-
- ☰ 7.2. Introduction to Quantum Physics
- ☰ 7.2.1. Blackbody Radiation
- ☰ 7.2.2. Planck's Hypothesis
- ☰ 7.2.3. Photoelectric Effect
- ☰ 7.2.4. Photon Energy
- ☰ 7.2.5. Photon Momentum
- ☰ 7.2.6. Compton Scattering
- ☰ 7.2.7. de Broglie Wavelength
- ☰ 7.2.8. Matter Waves
- ☰ 7.2.9. Wave-Particle Duality
- ☰ 7.2.10. Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 7.2.11. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
-
- ☰ 7.3. Quantum Mechanics
- ☰ 7.3.1. Wave Function
- ☰ 7.3.2. Probability Interpretation
- ☰ 7.3.3. Normalization
- ☰ 7.3.4. Schrödinger Equation
- ☰ 7.3.5. Operators and Observables
- ☰ 7.3.6. Expectation Values
- ☰ 7.3.7. Particle in a Box
- ☰ 7.3.8. Finite Potential Wells
- ☰ 7.3.9. Quantum Tunneling
- ☰ 7.3.10. Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
- ☰ 7.3.11. Hydrogen Atom
- ☰ 7.3.12. Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 7.3.13. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 7.3.14. Spin
- ☰ 7.3.15. Stern-Gerlach Experiment
- ☰ 7.3.16. Pauli Exclusion Principle
-
- ☰ 7.4. Atomic Physics
- ☰ 7.4.1. Thomson Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.2. Rutherford Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.3. Bohr Model
- ☰ 7.4.4. Atomic Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.5. Hydrogen Spectrum
- ☰ 7.4.6. Electron Shells
- ☰ 7.4.7. Orbitals
- ☰ 7.4.8. Electron Configurations
- ☰ 7.4.9. X-Ray Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.10. Atomic Transitions
- ☰ 7.4.11. Lasers
- ☰ 7.4.12. Stimulated Emission
-
-
- ☰ 8. Part VII: Nuclear and Particle Physics
- ☰ 8.1. Nuclear Structure
- ☰ 8.1.1. The Atomic Nucleus
- ☰ 8.1.1.1. Protons and Neutrons
- ☰ 8.1.1.2. Atomic Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.3. Mass Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.4. Isotopes
- ☰ 8.1.1.5. Isotones
- ☰ 8.1.1.6. Isobars
-
- ☰ 8.1.2. Nuclear Size and Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.1. Nuclear Radius
- ☰ 8.1.2.2. Nuclear Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.3. Nuclear Charge Distribution
-
- ☰ 8.1.3. Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.1. Strong Nuclear Force
- ☰ 8.1.3.2. Properties of Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.3. Proton-Neutron Interaction
- ☰ 8.1.3.4. Nuclear Stability
-
- ☰ 8.1.4. Mass and Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.1. Atomic Mass Units
- ☰ 8.1.4.2. Mass Defect
- ☰ 8.1.4.3. Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.4. Binding Energy per Nucleon
- ☰ 8.1.4.5. Binding-Energy Curve
-
- ☰ 8.1.5. Nuclear Models
- ☰ 8.1.5.1. Liquid-Drop Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.2. Semi-Empirical Mass Formula
- ☰ 8.1.5.3. Nuclear Shell Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.4. Magic Numbers
- ☰ 8.1.5.5. Collective Model
-
- ☰ 8.1.6. Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Moments
- ☰ 8.1.6.1. Nuclear Angular Momentum
- ☰ 8.1.6.2. Nuclear Spin
- ☰ 8.1.6.3. Nuclear Magnetic Moment
-
-
- ☰ 8.2. Radioactivity and Nuclear Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1. Radioactive Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.1. Nuclear Instability
- ☰ 8.2.1.2. Random Nature of Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.3. Decay Constant
-
- ☰ 8.2.2. Radioactive Decay Law
- ☰ 8.2.2.1. Exponential Decay
- ☰ 8.2.2.2. Activity
- ☰ 8.2.2.3. Half-Life
- ☰ 8.2.2.4. Mean Lifetime
-
- ☰ 8.2.3. Alpha Decay
- ☰ 8.2.3.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.2.3.2. Energy of Alpha Decay
-
- ☰ 8.2.4. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.1. Beta-Minus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.2. Beta-Plus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.3. Electron Capture
- ☰ 8.2.4.4. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.2.4.5. Energy Spectrum
-
- ☰ 8.2.5. Gamma Decay
- ☰ 8.2.5.1. Nuclear Excited States
- ☰ 8.2.5.2. Gamma-Ray Emission
- ☰ 8.2.5.3. Internal Conversion
-
- ☰ 8.2.6. Decay Chains
- ☰ 8.2.6.1. Parent and Daughter Nuclei
- ☰ 8.2.6.2. Secular Equilibrium
- ☰ 8.2.6.3. Natural Radioactive Series
-
-
- ☰ 8.3. Interaction of Radiation with Matter
- ☰ 8.3.1. Charged Particle Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.3.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.3.1.3. Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.1.4. Stopping Power
- ☰ 8.3.1.5. Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.2. Heavy Charged Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.2. Bragg Curve
- ☰ 8.3.2.3. Bragg Peak
-
- ☰ 8.3.3. Electron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.3.1. Collisional Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.3.2. Bremsstrahlung
- ☰ 8.3.3.3. Electron Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.4. Photon Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.4.1. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.3.4.2. Rayleigh Scattering
-
- ☰ 8.3.5. Attenuation of Radiation
- ☰ 8.3.5.1. Linear Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.2. Mass Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.3. Exponential Attenuation
- ☰ 8.3.5.4. Half-Value Layer
-
- ☰ 8.3.6. Neutron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.6.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.3. Neutron Capture
- ☰ 8.3.6.4. Neutron Moderation
-
-
- ☰ 8.4. Radiation Detection and Measurement
- ☰ 8.4.1. Principles of Radiation Detection
- ☰ 8.4.1.1. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.4.1.2. Detector Efficiency
- ☰ 8.4.1.3. Energy Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.4. Timing Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.5. Dead Time
-
- ☰ 8.4.2. Gas-Filled Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.2.1. Ionization Chambers
- ☰ 8.4.2.2. Proportional Counters
- ☰ 8.4.2.3. Geiger-Müller Counters
-
- ☰ 8.4.3. Scintillation Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.3.1. Scintillation Process
- ☰ 8.4.3.2. Organic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.3. Inorganic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.4. Photomultiplier Tubes
- ☰ 8.4.3.5. Silicon Photomultipliers
-
- ☰ 8.4.4. Semiconductor Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.1. Silicon Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.2. Germanium Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.3. Electron-Hole Pair Creation
-
- ☰ 8.4.5. Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
- ☰ 8.4.5.1. Photopeak
- ☰ 8.4.5.2. Compton Continuum
- ☰ 8.4.5.3. Compton Edge
- ☰ 8.4.5.4. Escape Peaks
-
- ☰ 8.4.6. Coincidence Measurements
- ☰ 8.4.6.1. Coincidence Detection
- ☰ 8.4.6.2. Timing Windows
- ☰ 8.4.6.3. True Coincidences
- ☰ 8.4.6.4. Random Coincidences
-
-
- ☰ 8.5. Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1. Principles of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1.1. Reaction Notation
- ☰ 8.5.1.2. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.5.1.3. Reaction Energetics
-
- ☰ 8.5.2. Q-Value
- ☰ 8.5.2.1. Exothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.2. Endothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.3. Reaction Thresholds
-
- ☰ 8.5.3. Reaction Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.1. Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.2. Reaction Probability
- ☰ 8.5.3.3. Energy Dependence
-
- ☰ 8.5.4. Types of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.3. Capture Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.4. Transfer Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.5. Charge-Exchange Reactions
-
- ☰ 8.5.5. Compound Nucleus
- ☰ 8.5.5.1. Formation
- ☰ 8.5.5.2. Decay Channels
- ☰ 8.5.5.3. Resonances
-
-
- ☰ 8.6. Nuclear Fission and Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.1. Nuclear Fission
- ☰ 8.6.1.1. Fission Process
- ☰ 8.6.1.2. Fission Fragments
- ☰ 8.6.1.3. Energy Release
- ☰ 8.6.1.4. Neutron Production
-
- ☰ 8.6.2. Chain Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.2.1. Criticality
- ☰ 8.6.2.2. Multiplication Factor
- ☰ 8.6.2.3. Critical Mass
-
- ☰ 8.6.3. Nuclear Reactors
- ☰ 8.6.3.1. Reactor Components
- ☰ 8.6.3.2. Fuel
- ☰ 8.6.3.3. Moderator
- ☰ 8.6.3.4. Control Rods
- ☰ 8.6.3.5. Coolant
-
- ☰ 8.6.4. Nuclear Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.4.1. Fusion Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.4.2. Coulomb Barrier
-
- ☰ 8.6.5. Stellar Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.5.1. Proton-Proton Chain
- ☰ 8.6.5.2. CNO Cycle
- ☰ 8.6.5.3. Nucleosynthesis
-
- ☰ 8.6.6. Controlled Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.6.1. Magnetic Confinement
- ☰ 8.6.6.2. Tokamaks
- ☰ 8.6.6.3. Inertial Confinement
-
-
- ☰ 8.7. Particle Physics Foundations
- ☰ 8.7.1. From Atoms to Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.1.1. Discovery of the Electron
- ☰ 8.7.1.2. Discovery of the Nucleus
- ☰ 8.7.1.3. Discovery of the Neutron
- ☰ 8.7.1.4. Discovery of Antimatter
-
- ☰ 8.7.2. Classification of Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.1. Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.2. Composite Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.3. Fermions
- ☰ 8.7.2.4. Bosons
-
- ☰ 8.7.3. Antiparticles
- ☰ 8.7.3.1. Matter and Antimatter
- ☰ 8.7.3.2. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.7.3.3. Annihilation
-
- ☰ 8.7.4. Relativistic Particle Kinematics
- ☰ 8.7.4.1. Four-Momentum
- ☰ 8.7.4.2. Invariant Mass
-
- ☰ 8.7.5. Particle Decays
- ☰ 8.7.5.1. Decay Width
- ☰ 8.7.5.2. Lifetime
- ☰ 8.7.5.3. Branching Ratio
- ☰ 8.7.5.4. Conservation Laws
-
-
- ☰ 8.8. Quarks and Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.8.1.1. Up Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.2. Down Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.3. Strange Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.4. Charm Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.5. Top Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.6. Bottom Quark
-
- ☰ 8.8.2. Quark Properties
- ☰ 8.8.2.1. Mass
- ☰ 8.8.2.2. Flavor
- ☰ 8.8.2.3. Color Charge
-
- ☰ 8.8.3. Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.3.1. Baryons
- ☰ 8.8.3.2. Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.4. Baryon Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.1. Proton Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.2. Neutron Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.3. Other Baryons
-
- ☰ 8.8.5. Meson Structure
- ☰ 8.8.5.1. Pions
- ☰ 8.8.5.2. Kaons
- ☰ 8.8.5.3. Heavy Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.6. Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.1. Color Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.2. Hadronization
- ☰ 8.8.6.3. Jets
-
-
- ☰ 8.9. Leptons and Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.1. Charged Leptons
- ☰ 8.9.1.1. Electron
- ☰ 8.9.1.2. Muon
- ☰ 8.9.1.3. Tau
-
- ☰ 8.9.2. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.2.1. Electron Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.2. Muon Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.3. Tau Neutrino
-
- ☰ 8.9.3. Neutrino Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.1. Weak Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.2. Neutrino Detection
-
- ☰ 8.9.4. Neutrino Oscillations
- ☰ 8.9.4.1. Neutrino Flavor
- ☰ 8.9.4.2. Flavor Oscillation
- ☰ 8.9.4.3. Neutrino Mass
-
-
- ☰ 8.10. Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1. Four Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1.1. Electromagnetism
- ☰ 8.10.1.2. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.1.3. Weak Interaction
-
- ☰ 8.10.2. Exchange Particles
- ☰ 8.10.2.1. Photons
- ☰ 8.10.2.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.2.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.2.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.10.3. Electromagnetic Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.3.1. Photon Exchange
-
- ☰ 8.10.4. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.4.1. Color Charge
- ☰ 8.10.4.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.4.3. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.10.5. Weak Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.5.1. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.10.5.2. W and Z Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.5.3. Flavor-Changing Processes
-
-
- ☰ 8.11. The Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1. Overview of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1.1. Matter Particles
- ☰ 8.11.1.2. Force Carriers
- ☰ 8.11.1.3. Particle Generations
-
- ☰ 8.11.2. Fermions
- ☰ 8.11.2.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.11.2.2. Leptons
-
- ☰ 8.11.3. Gauge Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.1. Photon
- ☰ 8.11.3.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.11.3.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.4. Higgs Field and Higgs Boson
- ☰ 8.11.4.1. Higgs Field
- ☰ 8.11.4.2. Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
- ☰ 8.11.4.3. Particle Masses
- ☰ 8.11.4.4. Higgs Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.5. Standard Model Interactions
- ☰ 8.11.5.1. Electroweak Theory
- ☰ 8.11.5.2. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.11.6. Limitations of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.6.1. Gravity
- ☰ 8.11.6.2. Dark Matter
- ☰ 8.11.6.3. Neutrino Masses
- ☰ 8.11.6.4. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.12. Symmetries and Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1.1. Energy
-
- ☰ 8.12.2. Particle Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 8.12.2.1. Baryon Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.2. Lepton Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.3. Strangeness
- ☰ 8.12.2.4. Charm
- ☰ 8.12.2.5. Isospin
-
- ☰ 8.12.3. Symmetries
- ☰ 8.12.3.1. Charge Conjugation
- ☰ 8.12.3.2. Parity
- ☰ 8.12.3.3. Time Reversal
-
- ☰ 8.12.4. CP Symmetry
- ☰ 8.12.4.1. CP Conservation
- ☰ 8.12.4.2. CP Violation
- ☰ 8.12.4.3. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.13. Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.1. Principles of Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.1. Electric-Field Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.2. Magnetic-Field Steering
-
- ☰ 8.13.2. Linear Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.2.1. LINACs
- ☰ 8.13.2.2. Radio-Frequency Acceleration
-
- ☰ 8.13.3. Cyclotrons
- ☰ 8.13.3.1. Cyclotron Principle
- ☰ 8.13.3.2. Cyclotron Frequency
- ☰ 8.13.3.3. Limitations
-
- ☰ 8.13.4. Synchrotrons
- ☰ 8.13.4.1. Circular Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.4.2. Magnetic Focusing
- ☰ 8.13.4.3. RF Cavities
-
- ☰ 8.13.5. Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.5.1. Fixed-Target Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.2. Collider Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.3. Center-of-Mass Energy
-
- ☰ 8.13.6. Major Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.6.1. Large Hadron Collider
- ☰ 8.13.6.2. Electron-Positron Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.6.3. Heavy-Ion Colliders
-
-
- ☰ 8.14. Particle Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.1. Principles of Particle Detection
- ☰ 8.14.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.14.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.14.1.3. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.14.1.4. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.2. Tracking Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.2.1. Cloud Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.2. Bubble Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.3. Wire Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.4. Silicon Trackers
-
- ☰ 8.14.3. Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.1. Electromagnetic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.2. Hadronic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.3. Shower Development
-
- ☰ 8.14.4. Cherenkov Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.4.1. Cherenkov Radiation
- ☰ 8.14.4.2. Particle Velocity Measurement
-
- ☰ 8.14.5. Time-of-Flight Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.5.1. Timing Measurements
- ☰ 8.14.5.2. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.6. Modern Detector Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.1. Tracking
- ☰ 8.14.6.2. Muon Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.3. Trigger Systems
-
-
-
- ☰ 9. Part VIII: Condensed Matter and Applied Physics
- ☰ 9.1. Solid-State Physics
- ☰ 9.1.1. Crystal Structure
- ☰ 9.1.1.1. Crystal Lattices
- ☰ 9.1.1.2. Unit Cells
- ☰ 9.1.1.3. Bravais Lattices
-
- ☰ 9.1.2. Electronic Properties
- ☰ 9.1.2.1. Energy Bands
- ☰ 9.1.2.2. Conductors
- ☰ 9.1.2.3. Insulators
- ☰ 9.1.2.4. Semiconductors
-
- ☰ 9.1.3. Semiconductor Physics
- ☰ 9.1.3.1. Intrinsic Semiconductors
- ☰ 9.1.3.2. Doping
- ☰ 9.1.3.3. p-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.4. n-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.5. p-n Junctions
-
- ☰ 9.1.4. Superconductivity
- ☰ 9.1.4.1. Zero Resistance
- ☰ 9.1.4.2. Meissner Effect
- ☰ 9.1.4.3. Critical Temperature
-
-
- ☰ 9.2. Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.1. Semiconductor Diodes
- ☰ 9.2.1.1. p-n Junction
- ☰ 9.2.1.2. Diode Characteristics
- ☰ 9.2.1.3. Rectifiers
-
- ☰ 9.2.2. Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.2. Field-Effect Transistors
-
- ☰ 9.2.3. Operational Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.1. Ideal Op-Amp
- ☰ 9.2.3.2. Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.3. Comparators
-
- ☰ 9.2.4. Digital Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.4.1. Binary Numbers
- ☰ 9.2.4.2. Logic Gates
- ☰ 9.2.4.3. Boolean Algebra
- ☰ 9.2.4.4. Basic Digital Circuits
-
-
-
- ☰ 10. Part IX: Astrophysics and Cosmology
- ☰ 10.1. Astrophysics
- ☰ 10.1.1. Measuring the Universe
- ☰ 10.1.1.1. Astronomical Distances
- ☰ 10.1.1.2. Parallax
- ☰ 10.1.1.3. Luminosity
- ☰ 10.1.1.4. Apparent Brightness
-
- ☰ 10.1.2. Stars
- ☰ 10.1.2.1. Stellar Spectra
- ☰ 10.1.2.2. Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
- ☰ 10.1.2.3. Stellar Evolution
-
- ☰ 10.1.3. Stellar Remnants
- ☰ 10.1.3.1. White Dwarfs
- ☰ 10.1.3.2. Neutron Stars
- ☰ 10.1.3.3. Black Holes
-
- ☰ 10.1.4. Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.1. Structure of Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.2. Milky Way
- ☰ 10.1.4.3. Galaxy Classification
-
-
- ☰ 10.2. Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.1. Expanding Universe
- ☰ 10.2.1.1. Hubble's Law
- ☰ 10.2.1.2. Cosmological Redshift
-
- ☰ 10.2.2. Big Bang Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.2.1. Early Universe
- ☰ 10.2.2.2. Cosmic Microwave Background
- ☰ 10.2.2.3. Primordial Nucleosynthesis
-
- ☰ 10.2.3. Dark Matter
- ☰ 10.2.3.1. Evidence for Dark Matter
-
-
-