8.6.6.1. Magnetic Confinement
Table of Contents
Why magnetic confinement is needed
Controlled fusion aims to make light nuclei combine and release energy. For this to happen, the fuel must become an extremely hot plasma. A plasma is a gas of free ions and electrons. At fusion temperatures, no ordinary solid container can touch the plasma without being damaged, and the plasma would also cool too quickly. Magnetic confinement solves this problem by using magnetic fields to guide and hold the charged particles away from the walls.
Charged particles do not move freely across a magnetic field. Instead, they spiral around magnetic field lines. This makes a strong magnetic field act like an invisible cage. Magnetic confinement does not create a perfect prison, but it can greatly reduce the loss of particles and energy.
A magnetic field can confine a plasma because the particles in the plasma are charged and experience the Lorentz force,
$$\vec{F} = q \vec{v} \times \vec{B}.$$
This force is always perpendicular to the particle velocity, so it changes the direction of motion and causes spiraling around field lines.
Motion of particles in a magnetic field
To understand magnetic confinement, it helps to look at the motion of one charged particle. If a particle has a velocity component parallel to the magnetic field, it moves along the field line. If it also has a velocity component perpendicular to the field, it circles around the field line. The result is a helical path.
The radius of this circular motion is called the gyroradius or Larmor radius. A stronger magnetic field gives a smaller radius, which helps confinement.
$$r_L = \frac{m v_\perp}{|q| B}$$
The angular frequency of the circular motion is the cyclotron frequency,
$$\omega_c = \frac{|q|B}{m}$$
Electrons, because they are much lighter than ions, spiral much more tightly and much more quickly.
Why straight magnetic fields are not enough
A simple straight magnetic field can guide particles, but it does not confine them completely. Particles can escape from the ends. For this reason, fusion devices usually bend the magnetic field lines into closed paths. A common shape is a torus, which is like a doughnut.
In a toroidal device, particles can keep circulating around without reaching open ends. However, toroidal geometry creates new difficulties. The magnetic field is not perfectly uniform, and particles drift. These drifts can slowly move particles across field lines, causing plasma losses.
Toroidal confinement
The basic idea of toroidal magnetic confinement is to combine different magnetic field components so that particles stay on nested magnetic surfaces. One field goes the long way around the torus, and another wraps around the short way. Together, these fields twist around the torus.
This twist is important. If the field lines were not twisted, particles would drift outward more easily. Twisted field lines help average out these drifts and improve stability.
Plasma pressure and magnetic pressure
A plasma pushes outward because of its pressure. The magnetic field resists this expansion. Good confinement requires a balance between plasma pressure and magnetic forces.
A useful quantity is the magnetic pressure,
$$P_B = \frac{B^2}{2\mu_0}$$
If the plasma pressure becomes too large compared with the magnetic pressure, confinement becomes difficult and instabilities can grow.
The ratio of plasma pressure to magnetic pressure is called beta,
$$\beta = \frac{P_{\text{plasma}}}{P_B} = \frac{2\mu_0 P_{\text{plasma}}}{B^2}$$
A higher beta can be desirable because it means more plasma pressure for a given magnetic field, but too high a beta can make the plasma unstable.
Magnetic confinement depends on balancing plasma pressure against magnetic pressure. A key relation is
$$P_B = \frac{B^2}{2\mu_0}.$$
If plasma pressure becomes too large relative to magnetic pressure, confinement can fail.
Confinement time
A fusion plasma must stay hot and dense for long enough that fusion reactions can occur efficiently. One measure of performance is the energy confinement time, often written as $\tau_E$. This is roughly the time over which the plasma keeps its energy before it is lost.
Better magnetic confinement means a larger $\tau_E$. Stronger fields, better plasma shaping, and improved stability can all help increase confinement time.
This idea connects directly to the broader conditions required for practical fusion, but here the key point is simple. Magnetic confinement is not only about holding particles in place, it is also about reducing energy loss.
Plasma instabilities
A plasma is not a rigid object. It can ripple, twist, shift, and develop waves. These behaviors are called instabilities. Instabilities are one of the biggest challenges in magnetic confinement.
Some instabilities distort the shape of the plasma. Others cause sudden losses of energy or particles. Because the plasma carries electric currents and interacts with magnetic fields, its behavior is described by magnetohydrodynamics, often abbreviated as MHD.
The design of magnetic confinement systems tries to suppress or control these instabilities by choosing suitable magnetic field shapes, plasma currents, and operating conditions.
Main magnetic confinement approaches
The two best known magnetic confinement approaches are the tokamak and the stellarator. Both use toroidal geometry, but they create the twisted magnetic field in different ways.
In a tokamak, part of the confining field is produced by an electric current flowing through the plasma itself. In a stellarator, the field twist is produced mainly by carefully shaped external coils. The details of tokamaks belong in their own chapter, but the important point here is that both are forms of magnetic confinement.
There is also magnetic mirror confinement, which uses stronger magnetic fields at the ends of a device to reflect particles back toward the center. This is conceptually simple, but it is generally less effective for large scale fusion confinement than toroidal systems.
| Approach | Main idea | Advantage | Challenge |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tokamak | Toroidal device with plasma current | Strong confinement, widely studied | Current driven instabilities |
| Stellarator | Toroidal device with complex external coils | Can operate steadily without large plasma current | Complex engineering |
| Magnetic mirror | Stronger field at ends reflects particles | Simple concept | End losses and poorer confinement |
Magnetic mirrors
In a magnetic mirror, the magnetic field is stronger near the ends than in the middle. As a charged particle moves into the stronger field region, its motion along the field can decrease, and it may reverse direction. This is the mirror effect.
This gives some confinement, but not all particles are reflected. Particles with too much velocity along the field can escape through the ends. So mirror machines have a natural loss region, often called the loss cone.
Practical challenges
Magnetic confinement requires much more than simply turning on a strong magnet. The plasma must be created, heated, shaped, and controlled. The magnetic coils must produce very strong fields, often using superconducting technology. The plasma must remain stable for long times, and heat escaping from the plasma edge must be managed carefully.
Another challenge is that collisions and turbulence can transport particles and energy across magnetic field lines faster than simple single particle theory would predict. This is why real plasma confinement is a major scientific and engineering problem.
Key physical picture
The central physical picture is that magnetic fields guide charged particles into spiral motion and, when arranged properly in closed and twisted geometries, can keep a hot plasma away from material walls. Good confinement means small particle losses, small energy losses, and controlled plasma behavior.
Magnetic confinement does not work by stopping particles completely. It works by forcing charged particles to follow magnetic field lines and by designing those field lines so that escape is difficult.
Essential formulas
| Quantity | Formula | Meaning | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lorentz force | $\vec{F} = q \vec{v} \times \vec{B}$ | Force on a charged particle in a magnetic field | ||
| Larmor radius | $r_L = \dfrac{m v_\perp}{ | q | B}$ | Radius of spiral motion |
| Cyclotron frequency | $\omega_c = \dfrac{ | q | B}{m}$ | Rate of circular motion around field lines |
| Magnetic pressure | $P_B = \dfrac{B^2}{2\mu_0}$ | Effective pressure of the magnetic field | ||
| Plasma beta | $\beta = \dfrac{2\mu_0 P_{\text{plasma}}}{B^2}$ | Ratio of plasma pressure to magnetic pressure |
Summary
Magnetic confinement is a method for holding a fusion plasma using magnetic fields instead of material walls. Because plasma particles are charged, they spiral around magnetic field lines. By shaping the magnetic field into closed and twisted paths, especially in toroidal devices, particle and energy losses can be reduced. The success of magnetic confinement depends on strong fields, long confinement times, and control of instabilities and turbulence.
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- ☰ 5.8.8. Resonance
- ☰ 5.8.9. Transformers
-
- ☰ 5.9. Maxwell's Equations and Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.1. Gauss's Law for Electricity
- ☰ 5.9.2. Gauss's Law for Magnetism
- ☰ 5.9.3. Faraday's Law
- ☰ 5.9.4. Ampère-Maxwell Law
- ☰ 5.9.5. Electromagnetic Waves
- ☰ 5.9.6. Speed of Light
- ☰ 5.9.7. Electromagnetic Spectrum
- ☰ 5.9.8. Poynting Vector
- ☰ 5.9.9. Radiation Pressure
-
-
- ☰ 6. Part V: Optics
- ☰ 6.1. Geometrical Optics
- ☰ 6.1.1. Nature of Light
- ☰ 6.1.2. Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.3. Plane Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.4. Refraction
- ☰ 6.1.5. Snell's Law
- ☰ 6.1.6. Total Internal Reflection
- ☰ 6.1.7. Spherical Mirrors
- ☰ 6.1.8. Thin Lenses
- ☰ 6.1.9. Mirror Equation
- ☰ 6.1.10. Lens Equation
- ☰ 6.1.11. Magnification
- ☰ 6.1.12. Ray Diagrams
- ☰ 6.1.13. Optical Instruments
-
- ☰ 6.2. Wave Optics
- ☰ 6.2.1. Interference
- ☰ 6.2.2. Young's Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 6.2.3. Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.4. Single-Slit Diffraction
- ☰ 6.2.5. Diffraction Gratings
- ☰ 6.2.6. Polarization
- ☰ 6.2.7. Malus's Law
- ☰ 6.2.8. Brewster's Angle
- ☰ 6.2.9. Rayleigh Criterion
- ☰ 6.2.10. Optical Resolution
-
-
- ☰ 7. Part VI: Modern Physics
- ☰ 7.1. Special Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.1. Galilean Relativity
- ☰ 7.1.2. Michelson-Morley Experiment
- ☰ 7.1.3. Einstein's Postulates
- ☰ 7.1.4. Lorentz Transformations
- ☰ 7.1.5. Relativity of Simultaneity
- ☰ 7.1.6. Time Dilation
- ☰ 7.1.7. Length Contraction
- ☰ 7.1.8. Relativistic Velocity Addition
- ☰ 7.1.9. Relativistic Momentum
- ☰ 7.1.10. Relativistic Energy
- ☰ 7.1.11. Mass-Energy Equivalence
- ☰ 7.1.12. Energy-Momentum Relation
- ☰ 7.1.13. Spacetime Diagrams
- ☰ 7.1.14. Light Cones
-
- ☰ 7.2. Introduction to Quantum Physics
- ☰ 7.2.1. Blackbody Radiation
- ☰ 7.2.2. Planck's Hypothesis
- ☰ 7.2.3. Photoelectric Effect
- ☰ 7.2.4. Photon Energy
- ☰ 7.2.5. Photon Momentum
- ☰ 7.2.6. Compton Scattering
- ☰ 7.2.7. de Broglie Wavelength
- ☰ 7.2.8. Matter Waves
- ☰ 7.2.9. Wave-Particle Duality
- ☰ 7.2.10. Double-Slit Experiment
- ☰ 7.2.11. Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
-
- ☰ 7.3. Quantum Mechanics
- ☰ 7.3.1. Wave Function
- ☰ 7.3.2. Probability Interpretation
- ☰ 7.3.3. Normalization
- ☰ 7.3.4. Schrödinger Equation
- ☰ 7.3.5. Operators and Observables
- ☰ 7.3.6. Expectation Values
- ☰ 7.3.7. Particle in a Box
- ☰ 7.3.8. Finite Potential Wells
- ☰ 7.3.9. Quantum Tunneling
- ☰ 7.3.10. Quantum Harmonic Oscillator
- ☰ 7.3.11. Hydrogen Atom
- ☰ 7.3.12. Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 7.3.13. Angular Momentum
- ☰ 7.3.14. Spin
- ☰ 7.3.15. Stern-Gerlach Experiment
- ☰ 7.3.16. Pauli Exclusion Principle
-
- ☰ 7.4. Atomic Physics
- ☰ 7.4.1. Thomson Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.2. Rutherford Atomic Model
- ☰ 7.4.3. Bohr Model
- ☰ 7.4.4. Atomic Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.5. Hydrogen Spectrum
- ☰ 7.4.6. Electron Shells
- ☰ 7.4.7. Orbitals
- ☰ 7.4.8. Electron Configurations
- ☰ 7.4.9. X-Ray Spectra
- ☰ 7.4.10. Atomic Transitions
- ☰ 7.4.11. Lasers
- ☰ 7.4.12. Stimulated Emission
-
-
- ☰ 8. Part VII: Nuclear and Particle Physics
- ☰ 8.1. Nuclear Structure
- ☰ 8.1.1. The Atomic Nucleus
- ☰ 8.1.1.1. Protons and Neutrons
- ☰ 8.1.1.2. Atomic Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.3. Mass Number
- ☰ 8.1.1.4. Isotopes
- ☰ 8.1.1.5. Isotones
- ☰ 8.1.1.6. Isobars
-
- ☰ 8.1.2. Nuclear Size and Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.1. Nuclear Radius
- ☰ 8.1.2.2. Nuclear Density
- ☰ 8.1.2.3. Nuclear Charge Distribution
-
- ☰ 8.1.3. Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.1. Strong Nuclear Force
- ☰ 8.1.3.2. Properties of Nuclear Forces
- ☰ 8.1.3.3. Proton-Neutron Interaction
- ☰ 8.1.3.4. Nuclear Stability
-
- ☰ 8.1.4. Mass and Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.1. Atomic Mass Units
- ☰ 8.1.4.2. Mass Defect
- ☰ 8.1.4.3. Binding Energy
- ☰ 8.1.4.4. Binding Energy per Nucleon
- ☰ 8.1.4.5. Binding-Energy Curve
-
- ☰ 8.1.5. Nuclear Models
- ☰ 8.1.5.1. Liquid-Drop Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.2. Semi-Empirical Mass Formula
- ☰ 8.1.5.3. Nuclear Shell Model
- ☰ 8.1.5.4. Magic Numbers
- ☰ 8.1.5.5. Collective Model
-
- ☰ 8.1.6. Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Moments
- ☰ 8.1.6.1. Nuclear Angular Momentum
- ☰ 8.1.6.2. Nuclear Spin
- ☰ 8.1.6.3. Nuclear Magnetic Moment
-
-
- ☰ 8.2. Radioactivity and Nuclear Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1. Radioactive Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.1. Nuclear Instability
- ☰ 8.2.1.2. Random Nature of Decay
- ☰ 8.2.1.3. Decay Constant
-
- ☰ 8.2.2. Radioactive Decay Law
- ☰ 8.2.2.1. Exponential Decay
- ☰ 8.2.2.2. Activity
- ☰ 8.2.2.3. Half-Life
- ☰ 8.2.2.4. Mean Lifetime
-
- ☰ 8.2.3. Alpha Decay
- ☰ 8.2.3.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.2.3.2. Energy of Alpha Decay
-
- ☰ 8.2.4. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.1. Beta-Minus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.2. Beta-Plus Decay
- ☰ 8.2.4.3. Electron Capture
- ☰ 8.2.4.4. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.2.4.5. Energy Spectrum
-
- ☰ 8.2.5. Gamma Decay
- ☰ 8.2.5.1. Nuclear Excited States
- ☰ 8.2.5.2. Gamma-Ray Emission
- ☰ 8.2.5.3. Internal Conversion
-
- ☰ 8.2.6. Decay Chains
- ☰ 8.2.6.1. Parent and Daughter Nuclei
- ☰ 8.2.6.2. Secular Equilibrium
- ☰ 8.2.6.3. Natural Radioactive Series
-
-
- ☰ 8.3. Interaction of Radiation with Matter
- ☰ 8.3.1. Charged Particle Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.3.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.3.1.3. Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.1.4. Stopping Power
- ☰ 8.3.1.5. Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.2. Heavy Charged Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.1. Alpha Particles
- ☰ 8.3.2.2. Bragg Curve
- ☰ 8.3.2.3. Bragg Peak
-
- ☰ 8.3.3. Electron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.3.1. Collisional Energy Loss
- ☰ 8.3.3.2. Bremsstrahlung
- ☰ 8.3.3.3. Electron Range
-
- ☰ 8.3.4. Photon Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.4.1. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.3.4.2. Rayleigh Scattering
-
- ☰ 8.3.5. Attenuation of Radiation
- ☰ 8.3.5.1. Linear Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.2. Mass Attenuation Coefficient
- ☰ 8.3.5.3. Exponential Attenuation
- ☰ 8.3.5.4. Half-Value Layer
-
- ☰ 8.3.6. Neutron Interactions
- ☰ 8.3.6.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.3.6.3. Neutron Capture
- ☰ 8.3.6.4. Neutron Moderation
-
-
- ☰ 8.4. Radiation Detection and Measurement
- ☰ 8.4.1. Principles of Radiation Detection
- ☰ 8.4.1.1. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.4.1.2. Detector Efficiency
- ☰ 8.4.1.3. Energy Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.4. Timing Resolution
- ☰ 8.4.1.5. Dead Time
-
- ☰ 8.4.2. Gas-Filled Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.2.1. Ionization Chambers
- ☰ 8.4.2.2. Proportional Counters
- ☰ 8.4.2.3. Geiger-Müller Counters
-
- ☰ 8.4.3. Scintillation Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.3.1. Scintillation Process
- ☰ 8.4.3.2. Organic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.3. Inorganic Scintillators
- ☰ 8.4.3.4. Photomultiplier Tubes
- ☰ 8.4.3.5. Silicon Photomultipliers
-
- ☰ 8.4.4. Semiconductor Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.1. Silicon Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.2. Germanium Detectors
- ☰ 8.4.4.3. Electron-Hole Pair Creation
-
- ☰ 8.4.5. Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy
- ☰ 8.4.5.1. Photopeak
- ☰ 8.4.5.2. Compton Continuum
- ☰ 8.4.5.3. Compton Edge
- ☰ 8.4.5.4. Escape Peaks
-
- ☰ 8.4.6. Coincidence Measurements
- ☰ 8.4.6.1. Coincidence Detection
- ☰ 8.4.6.2. Timing Windows
- ☰ 8.4.6.3. True Coincidences
- ☰ 8.4.6.4. Random Coincidences
-
-
- ☰ 8.5. Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1. Principles of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.1.1. Reaction Notation
- ☰ 8.5.1.2. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.5.1.3. Reaction Energetics
-
- ☰ 8.5.2. Q-Value
- ☰ 8.5.2.1. Exothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.2. Endothermic Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.2.3. Reaction Thresholds
-
- ☰ 8.5.3. Reaction Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.1. Cross Section
- ☰ 8.5.3.2. Reaction Probability
- ☰ 8.5.3.3. Energy Dependence
-
- ☰ 8.5.4. Types of Nuclear Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.1. Elastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.2. Inelastic Scattering
- ☰ 8.5.4.3. Capture Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.4. Transfer Reactions
- ☰ 8.5.4.5. Charge-Exchange Reactions
-
- ☰ 8.5.5. Compound Nucleus
- ☰ 8.5.5.1. Formation
- ☰ 8.5.5.2. Decay Channels
- ☰ 8.5.5.3. Resonances
-
-
- ☰ 8.6. Nuclear Fission and Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.1. Nuclear Fission
- ☰ 8.6.1.1. Fission Process
- ☰ 8.6.1.2. Fission Fragments
- ☰ 8.6.1.3. Energy Release
- ☰ 8.6.1.4. Neutron Production
-
- ☰ 8.6.2. Chain Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.2.1. Criticality
- ☰ 8.6.2.2. Multiplication Factor
- ☰ 8.6.2.3. Critical Mass
-
- ☰ 8.6.3. Nuclear Reactors
- ☰ 8.6.3.1. Reactor Components
- ☰ 8.6.3.2. Fuel
- ☰ 8.6.3.3. Moderator
- ☰ 8.6.3.4. Control Rods
- ☰ 8.6.3.5. Coolant
-
- ☰ 8.6.4. Nuclear Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.4.1. Fusion Reactions
- ☰ 8.6.4.2. Coulomb Barrier
-
- ☰ 8.6.5. Stellar Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.5.1. Proton-Proton Chain
- ☰ 8.6.5.2. CNO Cycle
- ☰ 8.6.5.3. Nucleosynthesis
-
- ☰ 8.6.6. Controlled Fusion
- ☰ 8.6.6.1. Magnetic Confinement
- ☰ 8.6.6.2. Tokamaks
- ☰ 8.6.6.3. Inertial Confinement
-
-
- ☰ 8.7. Particle Physics Foundations
- ☰ 8.7.1. From Atoms to Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.1.1. Discovery of the Electron
- ☰ 8.7.1.2. Discovery of the Nucleus
- ☰ 8.7.1.3. Discovery of the Neutron
- ☰ 8.7.1.4. Discovery of Antimatter
-
- ☰ 8.7.2. Classification of Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.1. Elementary Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.2. Composite Particles
- ☰ 8.7.2.3. Fermions
- ☰ 8.7.2.4. Bosons
-
- ☰ 8.7.3. Antiparticles
- ☰ 8.7.3.1. Matter and Antimatter
- ☰ 8.7.3.2. Pair Production
- ☰ 8.7.3.3. Annihilation
-
- ☰ 8.7.4. Relativistic Particle Kinematics
- ☰ 8.7.4.1. Four-Momentum
- ☰ 8.7.4.2. Invariant Mass
-
- ☰ 8.7.5. Particle Decays
- ☰ 8.7.5.1. Decay Width
- ☰ 8.7.5.2. Lifetime
- ☰ 8.7.5.3. Branching Ratio
- ☰ 8.7.5.4. Conservation Laws
-
-
- ☰ 8.8. Quarks and Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.8.1.1. Up Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.2. Down Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.3. Strange Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.4. Charm Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.5. Top Quark
- ☰ 8.8.1.6. Bottom Quark
-
- ☰ 8.8.2. Quark Properties
- ☰ 8.8.2.1. Mass
- ☰ 8.8.2.2. Flavor
- ☰ 8.8.2.3. Color Charge
-
- ☰ 8.8.3. Hadrons
- ☰ 8.8.3.1. Baryons
- ☰ 8.8.3.2. Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.4. Baryon Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.1. Proton Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.2. Neutron Quark Structure
- ☰ 8.8.4.3. Other Baryons
-
- ☰ 8.8.5. Meson Structure
- ☰ 8.8.5.1. Pions
- ☰ 8.8.5.2. Kaons
- ☰ 8.8.5.3. Heavy Mesons
-
- ☰ 8.8.6. Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.1. Color Confinement
- ☰ 8.8.6.2. Hadronization
- ☰ 8.8.6.3. Jets
-
-
- ☰ 8.9. Leptons and Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.1. Charged Leptons
- ☰ 8.9.1.1. Electron
- ☰ 8.9.1.2. Muon
- ☰ 8.9.1.3. Tau
-
- ☰ 8.9.2. Neutrinos
- ☰ 8.9.2.1. Electron Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.2. Muon Neutrino
- ☰ 8.9.2.3. Tau Neutrino
-
- ☰ 8.9.3. Neutrino Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.1. Weak Interactions
- ☰ 8.9.3.2. Neutrino Detection
-
- ☰ 8.9.4. Neutrino Oscillations
- ☰ 8.9.4.1. Neutrino Flavor
- ☰ 8.9.4.2. Flavor Oscillation
- ☰ 8.9.4.3. Neutrino Mass
-
-
- ☰ 8.10. Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1. Four Fundamental Interactions
- ☰ 8.10.1.1. Electromagnetism
- ☰ 8.10.1.2. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.1.3. Weak Interaction
-
- ☰ 8.10.2. Exchange Particles
- ☰ 8.10.2.1. Photons
- ☰ 8.10.2.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.2.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.2.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.10.3. Electromagnetic Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.3.1. Photon Exchange
-
- ☰ 8.10.4. Strong Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.4.1. Color Charge
- ☰ 8.10.4.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.10.4.3. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.10.5. Weak Interaction
- ☰ 8.10.5.1. Beta Decay
- ☰ 8.10.5.2. W and Z Bosons
- ☰ 8.10.5.3. Flavor-Changing Processes
-
-
- ☰ 8.11. The Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1. Overview of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.1.1. Matter Particles
- ☰ 8.11.1.2. Force Carriers
- ☰ 8.11.1.3. Particle Generations
-
- ☰ 8.11.2. Fermions
- ☰ 8.11.2.1. Quarks
- ☰ 8.11.2.2. Leptons
-
- ☰ 8.11.3. Gauge Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.1. Photon
- ☰ 8.11.3.2. Gluons
- ☰ 8.11.3.3. W Bosons
- ☰ 8.11.3.4. Z Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.4. Higgs Field and Higgs Boson
- ☰ 8.11.4.1. Higgs Field
- ☰ 8.11.4.2. Spontaneous Symmetry Breaking
- ☰ 8.11.4.3. Particle Masses
- ☰ 8.11.4.4. Higgs Boson
-
- ☰ 8.11.5. Standard Model Interactions
- ☰ 8.11.5.1. Electroweak Theory
- ☰ 8.11.5.2. Quantum Chromodynamics
-
- ☰ 8.11.6. Limitations of the Standard Model
- ☰ 8.11.6.1. Gravity
- ☰ 8.11.6.2. Dark Matter
- ☰ 8.11.6.3. Neutrino Masses
- ☰ 8.11.6.4. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.12. Symmetries and Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1. Conservation Laws
- ☰ 8.12.1.1. Energy
-
- ☰ 8.12.2. Particle Quantum Numbers
- ☰ 8.12.2.1. Baryon Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.2. Lepton Number
- ☰ 8.12.2.3. Strangeness
- ☰ 8.12.2.4. Charm
- ☰ 8.12.2.5. Isospin
-
- ☰ 8.12.3. Symmetries
- ☰ 8.12.3.1. Charge Conjugation
- ☰ 8.12.3.2. Parity
- ☰ 8.12.3.3. Time Reversal
-
- ☰ 8.12.4. CP Symmetry
- ☰ 8.12.4.1. CP Conservation
- ☰ 8.12.4.2. CP Violation
- ☰ 8.12.4.3. Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry
-
-
- ☰ 8.13. Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.1. Principles of Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.1. Electric-Field Acceleration
- ☰ 8.13.1.2. Magnetic-Field Steering
-
- ☰ 8.13.2. Linear Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.2.1. LINACs
- ☰ 8.13.2.2. Radio-Frequency Acceleration
-
- ☰ 8.13.3. Cyclotrons
- ☰ 8.13.3.1. Cyclotron Principle
- ☰ 8.13.3.2. Cyclotron Frequency
- ☰ 8.13.3.3. Limitations
-
- ☰ 8.13.4. Synchrotrons
- ☰ 8.13.4.1. Circular Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.4.2. Magnetic Focusing
- ☰ 8.13.4.3. RF Cavities
-
- ☰ 8.13.5. Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.5.1. Fixed-Target Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.2. Collider Experiments
- ☰ 8.13.5.3. Center-of-Mass Energy
-
- ☰ 8.13.6. Major Particle Accelerators
- ☰ 8.13.6.1. Large Hadron Collider
- ☰ 8.13.6.2. Electron-Positron Colliders
- ☰ 8.13.6.3. Heavy-Ion Colliders
-
-
- ☰ 8.14. Particle Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.1. Principles of Particle Detection
- ☰ 8.14.1.1. Ionization
- ☰ 8.14.1.2. Excitation
- ☰ 8.14.1.3. Energy Deposition
- ☰ 8.14.1.4. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.2. Tracking Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.2.1. Cloud Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.2. Bubble Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.3. Wire Chambers
- ☰ 8.14.2.4. Silicon Trackers
-
- ☰ 8.14.3. Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.1. Electromagnetic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.2. Hadronic Calorimeters
- ☰ 8.14.3.3. Shower Development
-
- ☰ 8.14.4. Cherenkov Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.4.1. Cherenkov Radiation
- ☰ 8.14.4.2. Particle Velocity Measurement
-
- ☰ 8.14.5. Time-of-Flight Detectors
- ☰ 8.14.5.1. Timing Measurements
- ☰ 8.14.5.2. Particle Identification
-
- ☰ 8.14.6. Modern Detector Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.1. Tracking
- ☰ 8.14.6.2. Muon Systems
- ☰ 8.14.6.3. Trigger Systems
-
-
-
- ☰ 9. Part VIII: Condensed Matter and Applied Physics
- ☰ 9.1. Solid-State Physics
- ☰ 9.1.1. Crystal Structure
- ☰ 9.1.1.1. Crystal Lattices
- ☰ 9.1.1.2. Unit Cells
- ☰ 9.1.1.3. Bravais Lattices
-
- ☰ 9.1.2. Electronic Properties
- ☰ 9.1.2.1. Energy Bands
- ☰ 9.1.2.2. Conductors
- ☰ 9.1.2.3. Insulators
- ☰ 9.1.2.4. Semiconductors
-
- ☰ 9.1.3. Semiconductor Physics
- ☰ 9.1.3.1. Intrinsic Semiconductors
- ☰ 9.1.3.2. Doping
- ☰ 9.1.3.3. p-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.4. n-Type Materials
- ☰ 9.1.3.5. p-n Junctions
-
- ☰ 9.1.4. Superconductivity
- ☰ 9.1.4.1. Zero Resistance
- ☰ 9.1.4.2. Meissner Effect
- ☰ 9.1.4.3. Critical Temperature
-
-
- ☰ 9.2. Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.1. Semiconductor Diodes
- ☰ 9.2.1.1. p-n Junction
- ☰ 9.2.1.2. Diode Characteristics
- ☰ 9.2.1.3. Rectifiers
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- ☰ 9.2.2. Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors
- ☰ 9.2.2.2. Field-Effect Transistors
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- ☰ 9.2.3. Operational Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.1. Ideal Op-Amp
- ☰ 9.2.3.2. Amplifiers
- ☰ 9.2.3.3. Comparators
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- ☰ 9.2.4. Digital Electronics
- ☰ 9.2.4.1. Binary Numbers
- ☰ 9.2.4.2. Logic Gates
- ☰ 9.2.4.3. Boolean Algebra
- ☰ 9.2.4.4. Basic Digital Circuits
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- ☰ 10. Part IX: Astrophysics and Cosmology
- ☰ 10.1. Astrophysics
- ☰ 10.1.1. Measuring the Universe
- ☰ 10.1.1.1. Astronomical Distances
- ☰ 10.1.1.2. Parallax
- ☰ 10.1.1.3. Luminosity
- ☰ 10.1.1.4. Apparent Brightness
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- ☰ 10.1.2. Stars
- ☰ 10.1.2.1. Stellar Spectra
- ☰ 10.1.2.2. Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram
- ☰ 10.1.2.3. Stellar Evolution
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- ☰ 10.1.3. Stellar Remnants
- ☰ 10.1.3.1. White Dwarfs
- ☰ 10.1.3.2. Neutron Stars
- ☰ 10.1.3.3. Black Holes
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- ☰ 10.1.4. Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.1. Structure of Galaxies
- ☰ 10.1.4.2. Milky Way
- ☰ 10.1.4.3. Galaxy Classification
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- ☰ 10.2. Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.1. Expanding Universe
- ☰ 10.2.1.1. Hubble's Law
- ☰ 10.2.1.2. Cosmological Redshift
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- ☰ 10.2.2. Big Bang Cosmology
- ☰ 10.2.2.1. Early Universe
- ☰ 10.2.2.2. Cosmic Microwave Background
- ☰ 10.2.2.3. Primordial Nucleosynthesis
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- ☰ 10.2.3. Dark Matter
- ☰ 10.2.3.1. Evidence for Dark Matter
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